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Studies About Trees

<h1>Chapter IX</h1> <h2>An Outdoor Lesson on Trees</h2> The importance of nature study in the training of the child is now well recognized. The influences of such study from the hygienic, moral and æsthetic point of view are far reaching and cannot be expressed in dollars and cents. In his association with nature, the child is led to observe more closely and to know and to be fond of what is truly beautiful in life—beautiful surroundings, beautiful thoughts and beautiful deeds. He is inspired with reverence for law, order and truth because he sees it constantly reflected in all works of nature. The social instinct is highly developed and even the parents are often bettered through the agency of their children. The only way, however, to study nature—especially plants—is to study it out of doors. Our present tendency to gather in cities demands the upbuilding influences of trips into the open in order to equip the child mentally and physically to face the world and its work with the strength and tenacity characteristic of the country-bred. Moreover, the study of objects rather than books is an axiom in modern education and here, too, we can readily see that the best way to study trees is to take the pupil to the trees. Such studies are more lasting than book study because they emphasize the spirit and the goal rather than the petty facts. Educators and parents are now recognizing the value of outdoor trips for their children and are beginning to indulge in them quite frequently. In many instances teachers about to take out their children for a day have inquired of the writer how to go about giving a general field lesson when they reached the park or woodland. The purpose of this chapter is to answer such a question and yet it is evident that it cannot be answered completely. What to observe out doors and how to present one’s impressions is a broad question and varies with the knowledge and ability of the teacher as well as with the age and experience of the children. The how and the what in nature study is of greater import than the hard, dry facts and that must be left entirely to the teacher. A few suggestions, however, may not be amiss: 1. General observations with a view to character building: First of all it is important to remember that the great value of all tree and nature study is the inculcation in the minds of the children of an appreciation and love for the beautiful. Inspiring them to love trees generally means more than teaching them to know trees. Mere facts about trees taught in an academic way are often no more lasting than the formulæ in trigonometry which most of us have long ago forgotten. The important thing is that permanent results be left and nothing else will produce such lasting impressions as the study of trees out of doors. <div class="illustration" id="fig153-box"> <ANTIMG class="illustration" width-obs="516" height-obs="645" id="fig153-img" src="images/fig153.jpg" title="[Illustration: Fig. 153.—Trees Have Individuality.]" alt="[Illustration]" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 153.—Trees Have Individuality.</div> </div> General observations about trees can be made by pointing out the beauty and character of the individual forms and branching, their harmony in their relations to each other as factors of a beautiful composition and the wealth of shades and colors in their leaves, bark and flowers. Compare, for instance, the intricate ramification of an American elm with the simple branching of a sugar maple, the sturdiness of a white oak with the tenderness of a soft maple, the wide spread of a beech with the slender form of a Lombardy poplar, the upward pointing branches of a gingko with the drooping form of a weeping willow. At close range, each of these trees reveals itself as an individual with a character quite its own. At little distance you may see them grouped together, subordinating their individuality and helping to blend into a beautiful composition with a character all its own. There is nothing more inspiring than the variety of greens in the spring foliage, the diversity of color in the spring blossoms and the wonderful display of autumnal tints offered by the sweet gum, sassafras, dogwood, black gum, red maple, sugar maple, scarlet oak, blue beech, sorrel tree, ash and gingko. The white bark of the gray birch, the dark bark of the black oak, the gray of the beech, the golden yellow of the mulberry and the mottled bark of the sycamore are interesting comparisons. The smooth bark of the mockernut hickory contrasts greatly with the shaggy bark of the shagbark hickory—members of the same family and yet how different. A wonderful opportunity is thus offered for a comparative study of human nature—individuality and community life, all reflected in trees. With this preliminary study and with the addition of some remarks on the value of trees as health givers and moral uplifters, the child is interested and attracted. The lesson so far has attained its aim. 2. Specific observations with a view to training the observative powers: The child’s training in closeness of observation and scientific precision may be the next consideration. His enthusiasm will now prompt him to lend his interest for greater detail. We can teach him to recognize a few of the common trees by their general characters—an American elm by its fan-shaped form, a gray birch by its white bark, a white pine by the five needles to each cluster, a horsechestnut by its opposite branching and big sticky bud and a willow by its drooping habit. After that we may introduce, if the age of the pupils justifies, more details extending to greater differences which distinguish one species from another. The lesson might continue by pointing out the requirements of trees for water and light. Find a tree on some slope where the roots are exposed and another which is being encroached upon by its neighbor, and show how in one case the roots travel in search of water and food and in the other the branches bend toward the light, growing more vigorously on that side. Compare the trees on the open lawn with those in the grove and show how those in the open have grown with branches near the ground while those in the woodland are slender, tall and free from branches to some distance above the ground. Point out the lenticels on the bark of birch and sweet cherry trees and explain how trees breathe. Compare this process with that of the human body. You may now come across an old stump and here you can point out the structure of the wood—the sapwood, cambium and bark. You can illustrate the annual rings and count the age of the tree. At another point you may find a tree with a wound or bruised bark and here you can readily make a closer study of the cambium layer and its manner of growth. The adaptation of plants to the seasonal changes opens another interesting field of study for beginners. If the season is the fall or winter, note how the trees have prepared themselves for the winter’s cold by terminating the flow of sap, by dropping their leaves too tender to resist the winter’s cold, and by covering their buds with scales lined with down on the inside. Observe how the insects have spun for themselves silken nests or remain preserved in the egg state over the winter. If the season is spring or summer the opposite may be noted. See how everything turns to life; how the buds are opening, the leaves emerging, the sap running, seeds germinating and flowers blooming. The soil conditions on the lawn and in the grove furnish another interesting feature of comparison and study. In the grove, you can demonstrate the decomposition of the fallen leaves, the formation of humus and its value to the tree. The importance of the forest soil as a conservator of water and its relation to stream flow and soil erosion can be brought out at this juncture. An eroded bank and a slope covered with trees and shrubs would provide excellent models for this study. A consideration of the economic value of the trees would also be in place. 3. Civic lessons reflected in trees: The community life of trees in the grove, their growth, struggles for light and food and their mutual aid can be brought out and compared with the community life among people. The trees may here be seen struggling with each other for light and food, forcing each other’s growth upward, some winning out and developing into stalwart and thrifty specimens and others becoming suppressed or entirely killed. On the other hand they may be seen helping each other in their community growth by protecting each other from windfall and by contributing to the fertility of the forest soil in dropping their leaves and shading the ground so that these fallen leaves may decompose readily. <div class="illustration" id="fig154-box"> <ANTIMG class="illustration" width-obs="520" height-obs="678" id="fig154-img" src="images/fig154.jpg" title="[Illustration: Fig. 154.—Trees also Grow in Communities.]" alt="[Illustration]" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 154.—Trees also Grow in Communities.</div> </div> 4. Enemies of trees: An old stump or tree may be seen crumbling away under the influence of fungi and here the children may be shown the effects of tree diseases both as destroyers of life and as up-builders, because fungi turn to dust the living trees and build up others by furnishing them with the decomposed wood matter. Insects too, may be invading the old dead tree, and something of their nature, habits and influences may be gone into. They may be shown as wood borers, leaf eaters, or sap suckers, all injurious to the tree. On the other hand they may be shown as seed disseminators and as parasites on other injurious insects; all benefactors. Forest fires as an enemy of trees might be touched upon by noting how easily the leaves may be ignited and a surface fire started when the season is dry. Top and ground fires emanating from surface fires can then be readily explained. <div class="illustration" id="fig155-box"> <ANTIMG class="illustration" width-obs="626" height-obs="412" id="fig155-img" src="images/fig155.jpg" title="[Illustration: Fig. 155.—Trees Blend Together to Form a Beautiful Composition.]" alt="[Illustration]" /> <div class="caption">Fig. 155.—Trees Blend Together to Form a Beautiful Composition.</div> </div> 5. Expression: The pupils have by this time been taught to feel the beautiful, to observe carefully and to reason intelligently and they may now be trained to express themselves properly. This may be accomplished by asking them to remember their observations and to write about them in the classroom. The lesson may be supplemented with effective reading about trees and forests. Interesting reading matter of this sort can be found in abundance in children’s readers, in special books on the subject and in Arbor Day Manuals published by the various State Education Departments. 6. Preparation: In order to save time looking for objects of interest and for the purpose of correlating the various observations so that all will follow in orderly sequence, it is well for the teacher or leader to go over the ground beforehand and note the special features of interest. The various topics can then be given some thought and a brief synopsis can be drawn up to serve as a memorandum and guide on the trip. It is also well to be provided with a hatchet to cut into some decayed stump, a trowel to dig up the forest soil, a knife for cutting off twigs and a hand reading glass for examining the structural parts of the various objects under observation. A camera is always a valuable asset because the photographs hung in the classroom become records of great interest to all participants. 7. Suggestions for forming tree clubs: A good way to interest children in trees and nature study is to form, among them, a Tree Club. The idea has been fully developed in Brooklyn, N. Y., Newark, N. J., and other cities and consists of forming clubs of children in the public schools and private institutions for the purpose of interesting them in the trees around their school and their homes. The members of these clubs are each given the tree warden’s badge of authority and assigned to some special duty in the preservation of the local trees. A plan of study and of outdoor trips is laid out for them by their director and at stated periods they are given illustrated lectures on trees and taken to the neighboring parks or woodlands. <h1>Index</h1> <ol class="index"> <li>Acer negundo, (45)</li> <li>— platanoides, (44), (123)</li> <li>— polymorphum, (122)</li> <li>— pseudoplatanus, (44)</li> <li>— rubrum, (120), (125)</li> <li>— saccharinum, (38)</li> <li>— saccharum, (37), (121)</li> <li>Æsculus hippocastanum, (33), (120)</li> <li>— rubicunda, (121)</li> <li>Ailing tree, how to tell an, (153)</li> <li>Air, influence of, (117)</li> <li>Alternate branched trees, (31)</li> <li>American beech, (68)</li> <li>— elm, (47), (50), (119), (125), (126)</li> <li>— larch, (29)</li> <li>— linden, (95)</li> <li>Annual rings, (186), (220)</li> <li>Aphides or plant lice, (68), (152)</li> <li>Apple rust, (22)</li> <li>Arbor-vita and red cedar, description of, (19)</li> <li>— (northern white cedar), (22)</li> <li>Arsenate of lead, (138)</li> <li>Ash, wood, (227)</li> <li>— black, (35), (227)</li> <li>— white, (35), (126)</li> <li>Ash-leaf maple, (46)</li> <li>Aspen, large-toothed, (54)</li> <li>—, quaking, (54)</li> <li>Austrian pine, (9), (11), (122)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Bald cypress, (30)</li> <li>Balm of Gilead, (54)</li> <li>Balsam, fir, (225)</li> <li>—, poplar, (54)</li> <li>Bark, (106)</li> <li>Bark, how to prevent splitting when removing branches, (162)</li> <li>— or trunk, trees told by their, (59)</li> <li>Bass-wood, (98)</li> <li>Bean, Indian, (104)</li> <li>Beech, American, (68)</li> <li>—, blue, or hornbeam, (59), (70)</li> <li>—, copper, (120)</li> <li>—, European, (69)</li> <li>— tree, (59), (128), (231)</li> <li>Beetle, elm leaf, (49), (141)</li> <li>Betula alba, (68), (120)</li> <li>— lutea, (68)</li> <li>— lenta, (68)</li> <li>— papyrifera, (66)</li> <li>— populifolia, (64)</li> <li>Bhotan pine, (6), (122)</li> <li>Bigbud hickory, (87)</li> <li>Birch, black, (66)</li> <li>—, European white, (68), (120)</li> <li>— fungus rot, (157)</li> <li>—, gray, (64)</li> <li>—, paper, (66)</li> <li>—, sweet, (66)</li> <li>— tree, (59)</li> <li>—, white, (64)</li> <li>—, yellow, (68)</li> <li>Bitternut hickory, (87)</li> <li>Black ash, (35), (227)</li> <li>— birch, (66)</li> <li>— locust, (100), (126)</li> <li>— oak, (75)</li> <li>— or sweet birch, (232)</li> <li>— spruce, (15)</li> <li>— walnut, (87), (230)</li> <li>Blotches, leaf, (41)</li> <li>Blue beech, or hornbeam, (59), (70), (128)</li> <li>— spruce, (123)</li> <li>Bolting limbs, (176)</li> <li>Bordeaux mixture, (160), (175)</li> <li>Borer, bronze-birch, (64)</li> <li>—, hickory bark, (85), (151)</li> <li>—, linden, (98)</li> <li>—, locust, (100)</li> <li>—, sugar maple, (37)</li> <li>Boring insects, (22), (134)</li> <li>Box-elder, (45)</li> <li>Bracing limbs, various methods of, (176)</li> <li>Bracket fungus, (154)</li> <li>Branches, dead and broken, removal of, (162)</li> <li>—, how to prevent bark splitting when removing, (162)</li> <li>Broadleaf or “hardwoods,” (222), (226)</li> <li>Bronze-birch borer, (64)</li> <li>Brooklyn, N. Y., (242)</li> <li>Broom hickory, (87)</li> <li>Brown hickory, (87)</li> <li>Brown-tail moth, (145)</li> <li>Buckeye, (34)</li> <li>Butternut, (83), (90)</li> <li>Buttonball, (63)</li> <li>Buttonwood, (63)</li> <li>By-products of forests, utilization of, (198)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Cambium layer, (106), (109)</li> <li>Camperdown elm, (50)</li> <li>Care in selecting trees suitable for the soil, (210)</li> <li>Carolina poplar, (51)</li> <li>Carpinus caroliniana, (70), (128)</li> <li>Castanea dentata, (80)</li> <li>Catalpa speciosa, (102)</li> <li>Caterpillars, (33), (74)</li> <li>Caterpillars, leaf-eating, (95)</li> <li>—, spraying for, (145)</li> <li>Catkin, (66)</li> <li>Cattle grazing in forests a source of injury, (196)</li> <li>Cavities, fungous diseases attacking, (172)</li> <li>— how caused, (170)</li> <li>—, manner of filling, (172)</li> <li>Cedar apple, (22)</li> <li>—, white, (24)</li> <li>Celtis occidentalis, (70)</li> <li>Chamæcyparis thyoides, (24)</li> <li>Character building and trees, (235)</li> <li>Chestnut, (80), (227)</li> <li>— and oaks, (71)</li> <li>— disease, (158)</li> <li>Chewing insects, (134)</li> <li>Cherry, (231)</li> <li>Child training in observation and precision, (237)</li> <li>Chlorophyll, (109)</li> <li>Civic lessons reflected in trees, (239)</li> <li>Climbing trees, precautions, (167)</li> <li>Clubs, tree, (242)</li> <li>Coffee tree, (120)</li> <li>Colorado blue spruce, (15)</li> <li>Color of leaves, (109)</li> <li>Common catalpa, (104)</li> <li>— locust, (101)</li> <li>Community life of trees, (182), (239)</li> <li>Conifers or “softwoods,” (222), (224)</li> <li>Coniferous trees, (122)</li> <li>Copper beech, (120)</li> <li>Cork elm, (95)</li> <li>Cornus florida, (104), (122), (128)</li> <li>Corrosive sublimate, (175)</li> <li>Cottonwood, (51), (232)</li> <li>Cottony-maple scale, (39)</li> <li>Cratægus oxyacantha, (128)</li> <li>Crown, (107)</li> <li>Cucumber tree, (99)</li> <li>Cypress, (225)</li> <li>— and larch, description of, (25)</li> <li>—, bald, (30)</li> <li>— knees, (31), (117)</li> <li>— obtuse leaf, Japanese, (123)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Dead and broken branches, removal of, (162)</li> <li>Deciduous trees, (119)</li> <li>Destroying injurious insects, methods of, (134)</li> <li>— pupæ, (141)</li> <li>Developing disease, moisture a factor in, (112)</li> <li>Diaporthe parasitica, (82)</li> <li>Diffuse-porous woods, (221), (230)</li> <li>Disease, fungi as factors of, (155)</li> <li>— moisture a factor in developing, (112)</li> <li>Dogwood, flowering, (104), (122)</li> <li>Douglas fir, (224)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Effect of heat on trees, (116)</li> <li>Elkwood, (100)</li> <li>Elm, (229)</li> <li>—, American, (47), (50), (119), (126)</li> <li>—, Camperdown, (50)</li> <li>—, cork, (95)</li> <li>—, English, (50)</li> <li>— leaf beetle, (49), (141)</li> <li>—, poplar, gingko and willow trees, told by their form, (46)</li> <li>—, white, (50)</li> <li>Enemies of trees, (239)</li> <li>Enemy of trees, forest fires as an (241)</li> <li>English elm, (50)</li> <li>— hawthorn, (128)</li> <li>— yew, (123)</li> <li>European beech, (69)</li> <li>— larch, (25), (122), (126)</li> <li>— linden, (98), (119)</li> <li>— weeping birch, (121)</li> <li>— white birch, (68), (120)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Fall webworm, (148)</li> <li>Fagus, (128)</li> <li>— americana, (68)</li> <li>— sylvatica, (69), (120)</li> <li>Fern, maidenhair, (55)</li> <li>Fighting forest fires, various ways of, (194)</li> <li>Filling cavities, manner of, (172)</li> <li>Fire, guarding woodlands from, (193), (213), (215)</li> <li>Flowering dogwood, (104), (122)</li> <li>Foliage, spraying, (141)</li> <li>Forest fires as an enemy of trees, (241)</li> <li>— —, various ways of fighting, (194)</li> <li>— lands, exemption from taxation, (216)</li> <li>—, life and nature of, (182)</li> <li>— trees, pruning, (166)</li> <li>Forestry in various countries, (198)</li> <li>—, what it is and what it does, (179)</li> <li>Forests, grazing cattle in, a source of injury, (196)</li> <li>Forest Service, U. S., (200)</li> <li>—, harvesting, (196)</li> <li>—, harvesting of, to increase production, (180)</li> <li>—, how established, (190)</li> <li>—, how harvested, (197)</li> <li>—, how protected, (193)</li> <li>—, how they help to regulate streams and prevent floods, (187)</li> <li>—, method of establishing, (191)</li> <li>—, planting, with seedling trees, (189)</li> <li>— prevent soil erosion, (187)</li> <li>—, protecting from destructive agencies, (193)</li> <li>—, safeguarding, (179)</li> <li>—, utilization of by-products, (198)</li> <li>Fraxinus americana, (35), (126)</li> <li>— nigra, (35)</li> <li>Frost, effect of, on trees, (116)</li> <li>Fungi and insects, protection against, (196)</li> <li>— as factors of disease, (155)</li> <li>Fungous diseases attacking cavities, (172)</li> <li>— diseases, spraying for, (160)</li> <li>Fungus, fruiting body of, (156)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Gingko biloba, (55), (120), (124)</li> <li>— or maidenhair tree, (55), (120)</li> <li>Gipsy moth, (74), (143)</li> <li>Gleditsia triacanthos, (102)</li> <li>Gloeosporium nervisequum, (62)</li> <li>Gray or white birch, (64)</li> <li>Grazing effect on forests, (196)</li> <li>Grove and lawn, study of soil conditions on, (239)</li> <li>Gum, red or sweet, (95), (231)</li> <li>Gymnocladus dioicus, (120)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Hackberry tree, (59), (70)</li> <li>Hackmatack, (29)</li> <li>Hard maple, (38)</li> <li>— pines, (224)</li> <li>“Hardwoods,” or broadleaf trees, (226)</li> <li>Hardy catalpa, (102)</li> <li>Harvesting forests, (196)</li> <li>Harvesting of forests to increase production, (180)</li> <li>Hawthorn, English, (128)</li> <li>Healthy tree, conditions which indicate, (153)</li> <li>Heartwood, (106), (219)</li> <li>Heat, effect of, on trees, (116)</li> <li>Hemlock, (17), (128), (225)</li> <li>— and spruce, description of, (11)</li> <li>Hickory, (229)</li> <li>— bark borer, (85), (151)</li> <li>—, bigbud, (87)</li> <li>—, bitternut, (87)</li> <li>—, broom, (87)</li> <li>—, brown, (87)</li> <li>—, mockernut, (44), (86)</li> <li>—, pignut, (87)</li> <li>—, shagbark, (83)</li> <li>—, shellbark, (85)</li> <li>—, whiteheart, (87)</li> <li>Hicoria alba, (86)</li> <li>— glabra, (87)</li> <li>— minima, (87)</li> <li>— ovata, (83)</li> <li>Honey locust, (102)</li> <li>Hop hornbeam, (70)</li> <li>Hornbeam, (blue beech), (70)</li> <li>Horsechestnut, (33), (120)</li> <li>—, red, (34), (121)</li> <li>Humus, (113), (207)</li> <li>Hydrophytes, (111)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Important insects, (141)</li> <li>Improperly pruned trees, (161)</li> <li>Indian bean, (104)</li> <li>Individuality of trees, (1), (182), (239)</li> <li>Insects and fungi, protection against, (196)</li> <li>—, boring, (22), (134)</li> <li>—, chewing, (134)</li> <li>— galls, (71)</li> <li>—, important kinds of, (141)</li> <li>— injurious to trees, (134)</li> <li>—, leaf-eating, (49)</li> <li>—, methods of destroying injurious, (134)</li> <li>—, nature, habits and influences of, (239)</li> <li>—, sucking, (134)</li> <li>—, the four stages, or life history of, (140)</li> <li>Ironwood tree, (59), (70)</li> <li>Italian or Lombardy poplar, (51), (128)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Japanese maple, (122)</li> <li>— umbrella pine, (123)</li> <li>Juglans cinerea, (90)</li> <li>— nigra, (87)</li> <li>Juniper, (22)</li> <li>Juniperus communis, (22)</li> <li>Juniperus virginiana, (19)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Kerosene emulsion, (139)</li> <li>Knees, cypress, (31)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Larch, American, (29)</li> <li>— and cypress, description of, (25)</li> <li>— European, (25), (122), (126)</li> <li>Large-toothed aspen, (54)</li> <li>Larix europaea, (26), (122), (126)</li> <li>Lawn and grove, study of soil conditions on, (239)</li> <li>Lawn trees, (119)</li> <li>— —, pruning, (166)</li> <li>Leaf blotches, (41)</li> <li>Leaf-eating caterpillars, (95)</li> <li>——, insect, (49)</li> <li>Leaves, (107)</li> <li>—, needle-shaped, (19)</li> <li>—, scale-like, (19)</li> <li>—, star-shaped, (93)</li> <li>Lenticels, (64), (117)</li> <li>Leopard moth, (39), (49), (149)</li> <li>Lesson on trees, outdoor, (234)</li> <li>Light, influence of, on trees, (114)</li> <li>Limbs, various methods of bracing, (176)</li> <li>Lime-sulphur wash, (139)</li> <li>Lime-tree, (98)</li> <li>Linden, American, (95)</li> <li>— borer, (98)</li> <li>—, European, (99), (119)</li> <li>Liquidambar styraciflua, (93)</li> <li>Liriodendron, tulipifers, (90), (126), (231)</li> <li>Location of trees, care to be exercised in, (130)</li> <li>Locust, (101), (228)</li> <li>—, black, (100), (126)</li> <li>— borer, (100)</li> <li>—, common, (101)</li> <li>—, honey, (102)</li> <li>— miner, (100)</li> <li>—, yellow, (101)</li> <li>Lombardy or Italian poplar, (51), (128)</li> <li>Low juniper, (22)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Magnolia acuminata, (99)</li> <li>—, mountain, (99)</li> <li>— soulangeana, (121)</li> <li>—, Soulange’s, (121)</li> <li>— tripetala, (100)</li> <li>Magnolias, the, (99)</li> <li>Maiden-hair fern, (55)</li> <li>— or gingko tree, (55), (120)</li> <li>Maple wood, (231)</li> <li>—, ash-leaf, (46)</li> <li>—, hard, (38)</li> <li>—, Japanese, (122)</li> <li>—, Norway, (44), (123)</li> <li>— phenacoccus, (37)</li> <li>—, red, (120), (125)</li> <li>—, rock, (38)</li> <li>—, silver, (38)</li> <li>—, soft, (40)</li> <li>— sugar, (37), (121)</li> <li>— swamp, (43)</li> <li>—, sycamore, (44)</li> <li>—, white, (40)</li> <li>Mesophytes, (111)</li> <li>Method of covering wounds, (164)</li> <li>Methods of destroying injurious insects, (134)</li> <li>Mockernut hickory, (44), (86)</li> <li>Moisture a factor in developing disease, (112)</li> <li>—, influence of, on trees, (110)</li> <li>Moral influence of trees, (237)</li> <li>Morus alba, (105)</li> <li>— rubra, (105)</li> <li>Moth, gipsy, (74)</li> <li>—, leopard, (39), (49)</li> <li>Mountain magnolia, (99)</li> <li>Mugho pine, (123)</li> <li>Mulberry, red, (105)</li> <li>—, white, (105)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>National forests, (200)</li> <li>Needle-shaped leaves, (19)</li> <li>Nettle tree, (71)</li> <li>Newark, N. J., (242)</li> <li>Northern white cedar (arbor-vitae), (22)</li> <li>Norway maple, (44), (123)</li> <li>— spruce, (13)</li> <li>Nursery, tree, (132)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Oak, (226)</li> <li>—, black, (75)</li> <li>—, pin, (79), (119), (125)</li> <li>—, red, (76), (124), (126)</li> <li>—, scarlet, (76)</li> <li>—, swamp white, (74)</li> <li>—, white, (72)</li> <li>—, yellow, (76)</li> <li>Oaks and chestnut, (71)</li> <li>Observations about trees, general, (235)</li> <li>— and precision, child training in, (237)</li> <li>Obtuse Japanese cypress, (123)</li> <li>Opposite branched trees, (31)</li> <li>Orange, Osage, (105), (128)</li> <li>Oriental spruce, (122)</li> <li>— sycamore, (63), (123)</li> <li>Osage orange, (105), (128)</li> <li>Ostrya virginiana, (70)</li> <li>Outdoor lesson on trees, (234)</li> <li>Oyster-shell scale, (53)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Paper birch, (66)</li> <li>Picea canadensis, (15)</li> <li>— excelsa, (13)</li> <li>— mariana, (15)</li> <li>— orientalis, (122)</li> <li>— parryana, (15)</li> <li>— pungens, (15), (123)</li> <li>Pignut hickory, (87)</li> <li>Pin oak, (79), (119), (125)</li> <li>Pine, Austrian, (9), (11), (122)</li> <li>—, Bhotan, (6), (122)</li> <li>—, Mugho, (123)</li> <li>—, red, (11), (126)</li> <li>—, Scotch, (9), (11)</li> <li>— trees, (1)</li> <li>— weevil, white, (4)</li> <li>—, white, (122), (126)</li> <li>Pines, (224)</li> <li>Pinus Austriaca, (9)</li> <li>— excelsa, (6)</li> <li>— mughus, (123)</li> <li>— resinosa, (11), (126)</li> <li>— rigida, (6)</li> <li>— strobus, (4), (122), (126)</li> <li>— sylvestris, (9)</li> <li>Pitch pine, (6)</li> <li>Pith, (106)</li> <li>Plane or sycamore tree, (60)</li> <li>Plant lice, or aphides, (68), (152)</li> <li>— study, value of, for children, (235)</li> <li>— trees, how to, (130)</li> <li>Planting forests, (179)</li> <li>— forests with seedling trees, (189)</li> <li>— little trees, methods of, (211)</li> <li>—, improving woodland by, (207)</li> <li>— new trees, (207)</li> <li>— trees, (128), (130)</li> <li>— — most economical method, (211)</li> <li>— — on land unsuitable for crops, (207)</li> <li>Plants, adaptation of, to seasonal changes, (238)</li> <li>Platanus occidentalis, (60)</li> <li>— orientalis, (63), (123)</li> <li>Polyporus betulinus, (157)</li> <li>Poplar, balsam, (54)</li> <li>—, Carolina, (51)</li> <li>—, Lombardy or Italian, (51)</li> <li>—, silver, (53)</li> <li>—, tulip, (92)</li> <li>—, white, (53)</li> <li>—, yellow, (92), (231)</li> <li>Populus alba, (53)</li> <li>— balsamifera, (54)</li> <li>— deltoides, (51)</li> <li>— grandidentata, (54)</li> <li>— nigra, (51), (128)</li> <li>— tremuloides, (54)</li> <li>Pores in wood, (227)</li> <li>— small or indistinct, (230)</li> <li>— varying in size, (230)</li> <li>Poster for private woodlands, (215)</li> <li>Precautions against fire, (214)</li> <li>Protection against fungi and insects, (196)</li> <li>Pruning forest trees, (166)</li> <li>— lawn trees, (166)</li> <li>— shade trees, (166)</li> <li>—, tools used in, (166)</li> <li>—, too severe, (163)</li> <li>— trees, fundamental principles, (160)</li> <li>— —, time for, (162)</li> <li>Pussy willow, (59)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Quaking aspen, (54)</li> <li>Quality of trees, how to judge, (129)</li> <li>Quality of wood, how to judge, (233)</li> <li>Quercus alba, (72)</li> <li>— palustris, (79), (119), (125)</li> <li>— platanoides, (74)</li> <li>— rubra, (76), (124), (126)</li> <li>— velutina, (75)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Red cedar, (225)</li> <li>— — and arbor-vitae, description of, (19)</li> <li>— gum, (95), (231)</li> <li>— horsechestnut, (34)</li> <li>— juniper, (22)</li> <li>— maple, (41), (120), (125)</li> <li>— mulberry, (105)</li> <li>— oak, (76), (124), (126)</li> <li>— pine, (11), (126)</li> <li>— or black oaks, (226)</li> <li>— or sweet gum, (231)</li> <li>Red spider, (13)</li> <li>Redwood, (226)</li> <li>Removal of dead and broken branches, (162)</li> <li>— of trees, how to mark, (212)</li> <li>Requirements of trees, (110)</li> <li>Retinospora obtusa, (123)</li> <li>Rhytisma acerinum, (41)</li> <li>Ring-porous woods, (221), (226)</li> <li>Robinia pseudacacia, (100), (126)</li> <li>Rock maple, (38)</li> <li>Roots, (110)</li> <li>—, development of, (110)</li> <li>—, protection of, from drying, (130)</li> <li>Rust, apple, (22)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Safeguarding forests, (179)</li> <li>Salix babylonica, (58)</li> <li>Salix discolor, (59)</li> <li>Saperda vestita, (98)</li> <li>Sapwood, (106)</li> <li>Sawfly, (27)</li> <li>Scale, cottony-maple, (39)</li> <li>—, oyster-shell, (53)</li> <li>Scale-like leaves, (19)</li> <li>Scarlet oak, (76)</li> <li>Sciadopitys verticillata, (123)</li> <li>Scolytus quadrispinosus, (85)</li> <li>Scotch pine, (9), (11)</li> <li>Screening trees, (128)</li> <li>Season, influence of, (116)</li> <li>Seasons for spraying trees, (137)</li> <li>Seedling trees, planting forests with, (189)</li> <li>Shade trees, pruning, (166)</li> <li>Shagbark hickory, (83)</li> <li>Shellbark hickory, (85)</li> <li>Silver maple, (38)</li> <li>— poplar, (53)</li> <li>Soft maple, (40)</li> <li>— pines, (224)</li> <li>“Softwoods” or conifers, (224)</li> <li>Soil erosion, forests prevent, (187)</li> <li>—, influence of, on trees, (112)</li> <li>— of wooded areas, preserving, (206)</li> <li>—, physical character of, important for production of trees, (114)</li> <li>Soulange’s magnolia, (121)</li> <li>Specifications for street tree, (131)</li> <li>Specimens of wood, how to identify, (222)</li> <li>Split trees, (176)</li> <li>Spray trees, how to, (138)</li> <li>Spraying apparatus, (138)</li> <li>— foliage, (141)</li> <li>— for caterpillars, (145)</li> <li>— for fungous diseases, (160)</li> <li>— material, (138)<ol class="index"> <li>arsenate of lead, (138)</li> <li>kerosene emulsion, (139)</li> <li>lime-sulfur wash, (139)</li> <li>tobacco water, (139)</li> <li>whale-oil soap, (139)</li></ol></li> <li>— trees, seasons for, (137)</li> <li>— trees, thoroughness essential, (138)</li> <li>Spruce and hemlock, description of, (11)</li> <li>—, black, (15)</li> <li>—, blue, (123)</li> <li>—, Oriental, (122)</li> <li>—, Norway, (13)</li> <li>—, white, (15)</li> <li>Spruces, (224)</li> <li>Star-shaped leaves, (93)</li> <li>Stem, (106)</li> <li>Stomata, (117)</li> <li>Streets, trees for, (123)</li> <li>Structure of trees, (106)</li> <li>— of woods, (217)</li> <li>Sucking insects, (4), (134)</li> <li>Sugarberry, (71)</li> <li>Sugar maple, (37), (121)</li> <li>— maple borer, (37)</li> <li>Suggestions for forming tree clubs, (242)</li> <li>— for outdoor study of trees, (234)</li> <li>— for planting little trees, (211)</li> <li>— for safety of tree climbers, (167)</li> <li>— for tree nursery, (132)</li> <li>Surface wounds, (168)</li> <li>Swamp maple, (43)</li> <li>— white oak, (74)</li> <li>Sweet birch, (66)</li> <li>— gum, (93), (231)</li> <li>Sycamore, (230)</li> <li>— maple, (44)</li> <li>— tree, (59), (60), (123), (230)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Tamarack, (29), (225)</li> <li>Taxation, forest lands exempt from, (216)</li> <li>Taxodium distichum, (30)</li> <li>Taxus baccata, (123)</li> <li>Thuja occidentalis, (22)</li> <li>Tilia americana, (95)</li> <li>— microphylla, (119)</li> <li>Tobacco water, (139)</li> <li>Tools used in pruning, (166)</li> <li>Toxylon pomiferum, (105), (128)</li> <li>Training a child to recognize trees, (237)</li> <li>— children in observation and precision, (237)</li> <li>Trametes pini, (27)</li> <li>Treating surface wounds, (168)</li> <li>Tree, ailing, how to tell an, (153)</li> <li>— and nature study, value of, (235)</li> <li>—, beech, (59), (128), (231)</li> <li>—, birch, (59)</li> <li>—, blue beech, (59)</li> <li>— climbers, suggestions for safety of, (167)</li> <li>— clubs, suggestions for forming, (242)</li> <li>—, coffee, (120)</li> <li>— diseases, (153)</li> <li>— diseases, effects of, as destroyers and up-builders, (239)</li> <li>— growth, conditions for, in different localities, (119)</li> <li>—, hackberry, (59)</li> <li>—, iron wood, (59)</li> <li>—, nettle, (71)</li> <li>— nursery, suggestions for, (132)</li> <li>—, plane, (60)</li> <li>— repair, (168)</li> <li>—, sycamore, (59), (230)</li> <li>—, tulip, (126), (231)</li> <li>—, weeping willow, (46), (59)</li> <li>Trees and character building, (235)</li> <li>—, care of, (134)</li> <li>—, care to be exercised in location of, (130)</li> <li>—, civic lessons reflected in, (239)</li> <li>—, community life of, (239)</li> <li>—, coniferous, (122)</li> <li>—, crowding, (203)</li> <li>—, deciduous, (119)</li> <li>—, effect of frost on, (116)</li> <li>—, effect of heat on, (116)</li> <li>—, enemies of, (239)</li> <li>— for lawns, (119)</li> <li>— for screening, (128)</li> <li>— for streets, (123)</li> <li>— for woodland, (126)</li> <li>—, general observations about, (235)</li> <li>—, hickories, walnut, and butternut, (83)</li> <li>—, how to identify, (1), (25), (83)</li> <li>—, how to mark for removal, (212)</li> <li>—, how to plant, (130)</li> <li>—, how to spray, (138)</li> <li>—, improperly pruned, (161)</li> <li>—, individuality of (1), (182), (239)</li> <li>—, influence of light on, (114)</li> <li>—, influence of moisture on, (110)</li> <li>—, influence of soil on, (112)</li> <li>—, insects injurious to, (134)</li> <li>—, measuring diameter of, (183)</li> <li>—, methods of planting little, (211)</li> <li>—, methods of removing, (212)</li> <li>—, nature and habits of individual, (185)</li> <li>—, needs that nature or man must supply, (117)</li> <li>—, outdoor lesson on, (234)</li> <li>—, physical character of soil important for production of, (114)</li> <li>—, planting, on land unsuitable for crops, (207)</li> <li>—, pruning, fundamental principles, (160)</li> <li>—, —, how to cut properly, (162)</li> <li>—, quality, (129)</li> <li>—, rapidity of growth of different species, (186)</li> <li>—, requirements of, (110)</li> <li>—, seasons for spraying, (137)</li> <li>—, setting, (130)</li> <li>—, structure of, (106)</li> <li>—, study of rings of various species, (186)</li> <li>—, suggestions for outdoor study of, (234)</li> <li>—, suggestions, for planting little, (211)</li> <li>— suitable for the soil, care in selecting, (210)</li> <li>—, tendency to split, (176)</li> <li>—, thoroughness essential in spraying, (138)</li> <li>—, time for pruning, (162)</li> <li>— told by their bark or trunk, (59)</li> <li>—, training a child to recognize, (237)</li> <li>—, value of, as health givers and moral uplifters, (237)</li> <li>—, what to plant and how, (119)</li> <li>—, when and how to procure, (129)</li> <li>—, when to plant, (129)</li> <li>—, when to spray, (137)</li> <li>—, wooded areas improved by planting new, (207)</li> <li>—, yew, (57)</li> <li>Tsuga canadensis, (17), (128)</li> <li>Tulip poplar, (92)</li> <li>— tree, (90), (126), (231)</li> <li>Tussock moth, (143)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Ulmus americana, (47), (119), (125), (126)</li> <li>— campestris, (50)</li> <li>Umbrella pine, Japanese, (123)</li> <li>— tree, (100)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Value of plant study for children, (235)</li> <li>— of tree and nature study, (235)</li> <li>— of trees as health givers and moral uplifters, (237)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Walnut, (83)</li> <li>—, black, (87)</li> <li>Wasteful lumbering, (193)</li> <li>Weeping willow tree, (46), (59)</li> <li>Western catalpa, (104)</li> <li>Whale-oil soap, (139)</li> <li>White ash, (35), (126), (227)</li> <li>— birch, European, (68), (120)</li> <li>— cedar, (24)</li> <li>— elm, (50)</li> <li>— flowering dogwood, (104)</li> <li>Whiteheart hickory, (87)</li> <li>White maple, (40)</li> <li>— mulberry, (105)</li> <li>— oak, (72)</li> <li>— oak, swamp, (74)</li> <li>— or gray birch, (64)</li> <li>— pine, (4), (122), (126)</li> <li>— pine weevil, (4)</li> <li>— poplar, (53)</li> <li>— spruce, (15)</li> <li>Whitewood, (92), (98), (231)</li> <li>Willow, weeping, (58)</li> <li>—, pussy, (59)</li> <li>Wood, diffuse-porous, (221), (233)</li> <li>—, diseased, disposal of, (212)</li> <li>—, early, (220)</li> <li>— fibers, (222)</li> <li>—, how to identify specimens, (222)</li> <li>—, how to judge quality of, (233)</li> <li>—, late, (220)</li> <li>— medullary rays, (220)</li> <li>— parenchyma, (222)</li> <li>— resin ducts, (222)</li> <li>—, ring-porous, (221)</li> <li>— spring, (220)</li> <li>—, structure, of, (217)</li> <li>— summer, (220)</li> <li>Woodland, care of the, (203)</li> <li>— how to improve by removing trees, (211)</li> <li>— how to judge, unfavorable conditions, (203)</li> <li>— trees, (126)</li> <li>Woodlands, other means of protecting, (216)</li> <li>Woodlot, small cost of well-selected young trees for the, (208)</li> <li>Wood, structure of, (217)</li> <li>Wooded areas improved by planting new trees, (207)</li> <li>— areas, preserving soil of, (206)</li> <li>Woods, identification, properties and uses of common, (217)</li> <li>—, ring-porous, (221), (226)</li> <li>— with large and conspicuous rays, (226)</li> <li>— with pores, (226)</li> <li>— with resin ducts, (224)</li> <li>— with small and inconspicuous rays, (227)</li> <li>— without pores, (224)</li> <li>— without resin ducts, (225)</li> <li>Wounds, importance of covering, (164)</li> <li>—, methods of covering, (164)</li> <li>—, treating surface, (168)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Xerophytes, (111)</li> </ol> <ol class="index"> <li>Yellow birch, (68)</li> <li>— locust, (101)</li> <li>— oak, (76)</li> <li>— poplar, (92), (231)</li> <li>Yew, English, (123)</li> <li>Yew trees, (57)</li> <li>Young trees for the woodlot, small cost of well-selected, (208)</li> </ol> <div style="break-after:column;"></div>

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