XII
Rain-Making Ceremonies
Among the Kalyāna Singapu Kondhs of Vizagapatam, a rain-making ceremony called barmarākshasi is performed, which consists in making life-size mud images of women seated on the ground, holding grindstones between their knees, and offering sacrifices to them.1
In times of drought, the Koyis of the Godāvari district hold a festival to Bhīma, one of the Pāndava brothers from whom they claim descent, and, when rain falls, sacrifice a cow or a pig to him. It is said2 to be considered very efficacious if the Brāhmans take in procession round the village an image of Varuna (the god of rain) made of mud from the bed of a river or tank. Another method is to pour a thousand pots of water over the lingam in the Siva temple. Mālas (Telugu Pariahs) tie a live frog to a mortar, and put on the top thereof a mud figure representing the deity Gontiyālamma. They then take these objects in procession, singing “Mother frog, playing in water, pour rain by potsfull.” The villagers of other castes then come and pour water over the Mālas.
The Rev. S. Nicholson informs me that, to produce rain in the Telugu country, two boys capture a frog, [306]and put it into a basket with some nīm (margosa, Melia Azadirachta) leaves. They tie the basket to the middle of a stick, which they support on their shoulders. In this manner, they make a circuit of the village, visiting every house, singing the praises of the god of rain. The greater the noise the captive animal makes, the better the omen, and the more gain for the boys, for at every house they receive something in recognition of their endeavours to bring rain upon the village fields.
“In the Bellary district when the rain fails, the Kāpu (Telugu cultivator) females catch a frog, and tie it alive to a new winnowing fan made of bamboo. On this fan, leaving the frog visible, they spread a few margosa leaves, and go singing from door to door, ‘Lady frog must have her bath; oh! rain god, give at least a little water for her.’ This means that the drought has reached such a stage that there is not even a drop of water for the frogs. When the Kāpu female sings this song, the woman of the house brings a little water in a vessel, pours it over the frog, which is left on the fan outside the door sill, and gives some alms. She is satisfied that such an action will bring down rain in torrents. On the first full-moon day in the month of Bhadrapada (September), the agricultural population in the Bellary district celebrate a festival called Jokumara, to appease the rain-god. The Barike women (said to belong to the Gaurimakkalu section of the Kabbēra caste) go round the village in which they live, with a basket on their heads containing margosa leaves, flowers of various kinds, and sacred ashes. They beg for alms, especially from the cultivating classes, and, in return for the alms bestowed (usually grain or food), they give some of the leaves, flowers, and ashes. The cultivators take these to their fields, prepare cholam (Sorghum) kanji or gruel, mix them with it, and sprinkle the kanji over their fields. After this the cultivator proceeds to the [307]potter’s kiln in the village, and fetches ashes from it, with which he makes the figure of a human being. This figure is placed in a field, and called Jokumara or rain-god, and is supposed to have the power of bringing down the rain in due season. A second kind of Jokumara worship is called muddam, or the outlining of rude representations of human figures with powdered charcoal. These are made in the early morning, before the bustle of the day commences, on the ground at cross-roads, and along thoroughfares. The Barikes, who draw these figures, are paid a small remuneration in money or kind. The figures represent Jokumara, who will bring down rain, when insulted by people treading on him. Yet another kind of Jokumara worship prevails in the Bellary district. When rain fails, the Kāpu females model a small figure of a naked human being, which they place in a miniature palanquin, and go from door to door, singing indecent songs, and collecting alms. They continue this procession for three or four days, and then abandon the figure in a field adjacent to the village. The Mālas take possession of the abandoned Jokumara, and, in their turn, go about singing indecent songs, and collecting alms for three or four days, and then throw the figure away in some jungle. This form of Jokumara worship is also believed to bring down plenty of rain. In the Bellary district, the agriculturists have a curious superstition about prophesying the state of the coming season. The village of Mailar contains a Siva temple, which is famous throughout the district for an annual festival held there in the month of February. This festival has now dwindled into more or less a cattle fair. But the fame of the temple continues as regards the Karanika, which is a cryptic sentence uttered by the priest, containing a prophecy of the prospects of the agricultural season. The pujāri (priest) of the temple is a Kuruba (cultivating caste). The feast at the temple lasts for ten days. On the last day, the god Siva is represented as returning victorious from the battlefield, after having slain the [308]demon Malla (Mallāsura) with a huge bow. He is met half-way from the field of battle by the goddess. The wooden bow is placed on end before the god. The Kuruba priest climbs up it, as it is held by two assistants, and then gets on their shoulders. In this posture he stands rapt in silence for a few minutes, looking in several directions. He then begins to quake and quiver from head to foot. This is the sign of the spirit of the god Siva possessing him. A solemn silence holds the assembly, for the time of the Karanika has arrived. The shivering Kuruba utters a cryptic sentence, such as ‘Thunder struck the sky.’ This is at once copied down, and interpreted as a prophecy that there will be much rain in the year to come.”3
It is said that, in the year before the Mutiny, the prophecy was “They have risen against the white-ants.”
The villagers at Kanuparti in the Guntur district of the Telugu country objected, in 1906, to the removal of certain figures of the sacred bull Nandi and lingams, which were scattered about the fields, on the ground that the rainfall would cease, if these sacred objects were taken away.
To bring down rain, Brāhmans, and those non-Brāhmans who copy their ceremonial rites, have their Varuna japam, or prayers to Varuna, the rain-god. Some of the lower classes, instead of addressing their prayers to Varuna, try to induce a spirit or dēvata named Kodumpāvi (wicked one) to send her paramour Sukra to the affected area. The belief seems to be that Sukra goes away to his concubinage for about six months, and, if he does not then return, drought ensues. The ceremony consists in making a huge figure of Kodumpāvi in clay, which is placed on a cart, and dragged through the streets [309]for seven to ten days. On the last day, the final death ceremonies of the figure are celebrated. It is disfigured, especially in those parts which are usually concealed. Vettiyans (Paraiyan grave-diggers), who have been shaved, accompany the figure, and perform the funeral ceremonies. This procedure is believed to put Kodumpāvi to shame, and to get her to induce Sukra to return, and stay the drought. According to Mr W. Francis,4 the figure, which is made of clay or straw, is dragged feet first through the village by the Paraiyans, who accompany it, wailing as though they were at a funeral, and beating drums in funeral time.
I am informed by Mr F. R. Hemingway that, when rain is wanted in the Trichinopoly district, an effigy called Komān (the king) is dragged round the streets, and its funeral performed with great attention to details. Or an effigy of Kodumpāvi is treated with contumely. In some places, the women collect kanji (rice gruel) from door to door, and drink it, or throw it away on a tank bund (embankment), wailing the while as they do at funerals. People of the higher castes repeat prayers to Varuna, and read portions of the Virāta Parvam in the Mahābhārata, in the hope that the land will be as fertile as the country of the Virāts, where the Pāndavas lived. When the tanks and rivers threaten to breach their banks, men stand naked on the bund, and beat drums; and, if too much rain falls, naked men point firebrands at the sky. Their nudity is supposed to shock the powers that bring the rain, and arrest their further progress. According to Mr Francis,5 when too much rain falls, the way to stop it is to send the eldest son to stand in it stark naked, with a torch in his hand. [310]
A Native of Coimbatore wrote a few years ago that we have done all things possible to please the gods. We spent about two hundred rupees in performing Varuna japam on a grand scale in a strictly orthodox fashion. For a few days there were cold winds, and some lightning. But, alas, the japam was over, and with that disappeared all signs of getting any showers in the near future. It is noted by Haddon6 that, in the Torres Straits, as elsewhere, the impossible is never attempted, and a rain charm would not be made when there was no expectation of rain coming, or during the wrong season.
There is, in some parts of the country, a belief that, if lepers are buried when they die, rain will not visit the locality where their corpses have been deposited. So they disinter the bodies, and throw the remains thereof into the river, or burn them. Some years ago, a man who was supposed to be a leper died, and was buried. His skeleton was disinterred, put into a basket, and hung to a tree with a garland of flowers round its neck. The Superintendent of Police, coming across it, ordered it to be disposed of.
The following quaint superstitions relating to the origin of rain are recorded by Mr Gopal Panikkar.7
“In the regions above the earth, there are supposed to exist large monsters called Kalameghathanmar, to whom is assigned the responsibility of supplying the earth with water. These monsters are under the direction and control of Indra,8 and are possessed of enormous physical strength. They have two huge horns projecting upwards from the sides of the crown of the head, large flashing eyes, and other remarkable features. All the [311]summer they are engaged in drawing up water from the earth through their mouths, which they spit out to produce rain in the rainy season. A still ruder imagination ascribes rain to the periodical discharge of urine by these monsters. Hence, in some quarters, there exists a peculiar aversion to the use of rain-water for human consumption.”
[312]
1 “Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam District,” 1907, i. 73.
2 “Gazetteer of the Godāvari District,” 1907, i. 47.
3 Madras Mail, 4th November, 1905.
4 “Gazetteer of the South Arcot District,” 1906, i. 94.
5 Ibid.
6 “Magic and Fetishism” (Religions ancient and modern), 1906, 62.
7 “Malabar and its Folk,” Madras, 2nd ed., 63–4.
8 Indra presides over the seasons and crops, and is therefore worshipped at times of sowing and reaping.
Index
Abkāri (liquor) license, used as medicine, 187
Adultery, 51, 254
Agricultural ceremonies, 60, 279, 289–304
Aiyanar, 56, 154, 166–7
Alagarswāmi, 169 Alangium Lamarckii, magic oil, 228
Albino crow, 69 Alstonia scholaris, sorcery figure, 249
Amputation of finger, 241
Ancestor, 51, 56, 68, 290, 291, 302, 303
Animal sacrifice, 14, 15, 22, 33, 37, 38, 41, 55, 57, 65, 68, 69, 75, 82, 92, 119, 136, 137, 146, 148, 149, 150, 152, 156, 165, 171, 175, 177, 183, 187, 201, 205–7, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 217, 245, 246, 248, 249, 252, 253, 263, 267, 279, 282, 284, 287, 295, 296, 302, 303
Animals, form assumed by human beings, 226, 228, 260–2
Ant, 93, 105, 308
Ant-hill, 36, 129, 132, 133–6, 156, 187, 253
Antelope (black-buck), 82
Araikāsu Nāchiyar, 170
Aranai (lizard) 99
Aravān or Kūttāndar, festival, 152–3
Areca nut, 20–1, 31, 49, 68, 283, 286
—— palm (Areca Catechu), 130, 177
Arjuna, 19, 126, 152
Arka (Calotropis gigantea), 51–2, 53, 68, 186, 195; marriage, 51
Arrack, 236, 242, 245, 251, 253, 295
—— vendors, superstition, 32
Ashes, ceremonial use, 21,
45, 115, 138, 186, 220, 229, 293, 296;
effigies, 44, 307;
from burial ground, 242;
of meriah victim, 204; omens,
16, 18;
sacred, 103, 182, 212,
270–1, 294, 306
Astrologer, 45, 127; Kaniyan, 273–7
Āvaram (Cassia auriculata), clothing tied to, 156
Ayilyam festival, 125
Ayudha pūja (worship of tools and implements), 174–5
Bābūl (Acacia arabica), 153, 155
Badaga, 14, 35, 49, 85, 116, 141, 232–4, 300
Bael or bilva (Ægle Marmelos), 33, 184, 277
Bairāgi, 235, 258–9
Bakuda, 81 Balanites Roxburghii, in lying-in chamber, 53
Balija, 118, 159
Bamboo, 113, 114, 148, 192, 212, 229, 260, 265, 293
Bangle insect, 107–8
—— offered to cholera god, 176;
to village goddess, 155;
worn as vow, 161
Banyan (Ficus bengalensis), 177, 219, 288
Barike, 306, 307
Basavi, 47, 142–3
Bathing, ceremonial, 29, 31, 43, 51, 55, 67, 72, 81, 104, 117, 130, 135, 150, 185, 229, 252, 285, 286, 294, 301, 303
Bats, 83 Bauhinia variegata, 118, 229
Bauri or Bāwariya, 41
Bead necklets offered to cholera god, 176
Beads worn as vow, 138
Bear, 78, 189
Bēdar, 68, 136, 142, 171, 193
Bejjo sorcerer, 32
Bēju sorceress, 263
Bells tied on trees, 154
Bēpāri, 74
Bestha, 98, 102
Betel, 20–1, 31, 32, 39, 40, 47, 49, 68, 117, 118, 147, 177, 188, 244, 249, 270, 277, 283, 298, 301
—— insect (vettila poochi), 106–7
Bhadrakāli, 114, 185
Bhagavati, 128, 250, 278, 292, 296
Bhairava, the dog-god, 196
Bhūthas, 162, 242
Bilimagga, 118
Billaikāvus (cat-eaters), 77
Bird excrement, fouling by, 34, 67, 87
—— superstitions, 86–9 [313]
Birds, omens, 15, 16, 21, 23, 34, 36, 37, 50, 56, 65–70, 280
Birth, symbolical, from cow, 79–80
Bison, 81–2
Black buffalo, 45;
cloth, 31, 112;
face painted, 116;
fowl, 284;
goat, 45, 267, 284;
pig, 284;
rope, 111;
sheep, 52, 191;
thread, 220;
wool, 191
Blood, human, a cure for fever, 239;
offered to idol, 221;
sacrificed victim, 201, 202, 207, 221;
sprinkling with, 145;
sucked by witch, 261, 262
—— of bullock, 80;
devil-dancer, 212;
fish, 102;
monkey, 73
—— of sacrificed animals, 22, 33, 37, 38, 65, 68, 69, 119, 175, 183, 187, 189, 212, 245, 246, 252, 255, 263, 282, 284, 295, 302
Blood-sucker (lizard), 99–100
Boar, wild, 189
Boddu-rāyi (navel-stone), 60, 211
Bones burnt in lying-in chamber, 53;
from burial-ground in sorcery, 242;
omens, 56, 57;
used by toddy-drawers, 76, 82
Bottling evil spirits, 250
Boundary ceremony, 60, 175;
dispute, 38;
flesh of victim interred, 201;
goddess, 37–8, 184;
oath, 36;
sacrifice, 211, 263
—— stone, birth ceremony, 176–7;
reverence, 184;
sacrifice, 37
Bow and arrow in magic, 33, 100, 192, 226, 244, 263
—— in rain-making ceremony, 308
Bōya, 22, 50, 135
Brāhman, 15, 17, 22, 26, 27, 28, 31, 43, 45, 50, 51, 52, 58, 59, 66, 67, 68, 79–80, 90, 102, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 133, 135, 139, 140, 148, 157, 170, 174, 239, 288, 297
——, Konkani, 172
——, Nambutiri, 85, 192, 193, 239, 292
——, Shivalli, 136
Brāhmani bull, 63; mock marriage, 165–6
—— kite, 65, 86
—— lizard (aranai), 99
Branding of body, 146
Brinjal (Solarium melongena), 295
Broom, 16, 40, 115, 244, 296
Budubudukala, 280–2
Buffalo, 45, 76, 81,
202, 263;
sacrifice, 22, 38, 137,
148, 201, 205, 206–7, 217
—— races, 114, 298
Bug, 105
Bull, omen, 21
Burial jars, prehistoric, supposed to contain sacrificed virgins, 216
——, mock, 211–3
—— of charm, 181,
186, 187, 229, 246, 252;
of fowl with corpse, 69;
of placenta, 55;
of sorcery figure, 247, 249 Butea frondosa, leaf-cup,
33
Butter, 79, 116, 185, 213. See Ghī
Cakes at village festival, 282;
in pregnancy ceremony, 54;
waved against evil eye, 116–7
Camphor, 50, 115, 117, 177, 184, 229, 244, 245, 249, 260, 278, 284, 285, 287, 293 Canthium parviflorum, thorn, 252 Cassia Fistula, 18, 289
Castor-oil, 97, 105, 116, 185, 258
Cat, 17, 57, 77, 260, 261
Cattle, 44, 60, 62–5,
79, 139–40, 210,
211, 291, 296;
sickness, 77, 154, 165,
183, 184, 209
Caves as shrines, 178
Chamæleon, 99, 240
Charcoal, 22, 119, 176, 185, 244, 286, 307
Charm cylinder, 113, 185, 187, 188, 189, 192–5, 219
Charms used by servants of Europeans, 197
Chauri (yak-tail fan), 297
Chedipe sorceress, 261–2
Chenchu, 194
Cheruman, 121, 290, 291, 295, 296
Childbirth, 53, 54, 77, 79, 176–7, 186, 189, 191, 193, 196
Chillies, 22, 115, 116, 119, 243, 253
Cholam (Sorghum), 60, 302, 306
Cholera, 36, 83, 98, 119, 148, 166, 175, 176, 183, 184, 236, 259, 263, 279
Chunam, 21, 22, 31, 44, 106, 113, 114, 117, 170, 212, 244, 246, 295
Clay bangles offered to deity, 176;
effigies, 148, 247, 308–9;
figures, offerings, 14, 162, 166–8
Cobra, 20, 25, 86, 91, 93, 95, 98, 99, 123, 133, 134. I3S Cochlospermum Gossypium (silk-cotton), 36
Cock-fighting, 299
Cocoanut, 18, 33, 39, 50, 55, 78, 83, 96, 97, 105, 117, 119, 122, 124, 125, 130, 131, 125, 136, 139, 146, 150, 160, 176, 177, 178, 183, 184, 185, 212, 215, 227, 229, 242, 244, 245, 248, 249, 253, 284, 287, 291, 294, 300, 301
Coffer-fish (Ostracion), 80 [314]
Coins, medicine, 196;
offerings, 104, 168–71, 176, 178, 179, 244;
omen, 46;
on magic square, 33;
on navel, 55;
put in sacred fire, 185;
representing deity, 170;
tied to marriage cloth, 49;
to ward off evil eye, 114;
waved round patient, 119;
worn as charm, 192, 195–6,
as vow, 171
Coloured water (ārati), waving, 117, 118
Comet, 44, 91
Conch, musical instrument, 294;
on cow’s horns, 111
Concubines kept by demons, 239
Constellations as omens, 55
Coorg, human sacrifice, 213–4
Coral charm, 193
Corpse used in sorcery, 236, 247
Cotton seed, 53, 97, 116, 243
Cow, 17, 58, 59, 79, 80, 88, 111, 150, 156, 176, 202, 301, 305
Cow-dung, 36, 53, 59, 79, 120, 208, 209, 228, 271, 283, 288, 289, 292, 293, 296, 303
Cowry shells in divination and fortune-telling, 276, 277, 283
Crab, 72, 83, 253
Cremation ground, goddess, 236;
sorcery ceremony, 229
Crocodile, 100, 192
Cromlech, 14
Cross-roads, 114, 184, 243, 244, 252, 267, 307
Crow, 67–9, 86–7
Crow-pheasant, 87, 111
Curds, 79, 115, 124, 244
Curls as omens, 52–3
Cutch making, vow, 177 Cynedon Dactylon, 45, 292
Dacoity and housebreaking, omens, 21–2, 40, 41–2, 55, 120
Dakni, 49
Dandāsi, 136
Dasara festival, 29, 82, 174, 280, 282
Dāsari, 75–6, 142, 146, 147–8, 258
Date-palm, knots in leaves as vow, 158–9
Datura, love charm, 239
Days, lucky and unlucky, 17, 20, 21–2, 24, 29, 30, 35, 44, 45, 46, 65, 67, 69, 104, 105, 133, 134, 186, 218, 240, 242, 284, 286–7, 299, 300, 301
Death, omens, 15, 19, 20, 31, 54, 57, 62, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70
Debts settled by goddess, 172
Deer, bone and horn, 82; skin, 280
Dēva-dāsi (dancing-girl), 46–7
Dēvānga, 47, 194
Devil dance, 245
Devil-dancer, 114, 212–3, 246
Dharba grass, 52
Dipāvali festival, 135
Dirgāyus, 25
Dog, 25, 53, 57, 58, 196, 260
——, wild, 79 Dolichos Lablab eaten at agricultural festival, 300
Dōmb, 33, 145, 146, 170, 243
Dommara, 94, 98
Donga Dāsari, 41
Donkey, 51, 242
Dreams, lucky and unlucky, 19–20
Drowned persons, spirits, 193, 254, 256
Dugong, 85, 240
Dung beetle, 106
Durga pūja, 280
Ears and tail of dog cut off, 57
Earth, annointing body, 45;
against evil eye, 115, 116;
balls on corpse, 51;
carried by immoral women, 52;
effigies, 114, 120, 219,
249, 254, 287, 305;
from grave as charm, 194;
in boundary dispute, 38;
pelting with, 206, 303;
rolling in, 145, 146, 150;
trodden on against evil eye, 115,
by elephant, 83;
urine of enemy, 187, 248
——, See Ant-hill
—— god, 59
—— goddess, 36, 39, 199, 303
——, menstruation, 296
—— spirit, 214, 215
Earth-eating, 38–9
—— snake, 96, 97
Eclipse, 42–4, 193, 195, 225
Effigy, 244, 250–1;
ant earth, 36;
ashes, 44, 307;
bamboo, 114;
brick, 113, 287;
charcoal, 307;
clay, 148, 247, 308–9;
coloured powder, 114, 244;
earth, 114, 120, 219,
249, 254, 287, 305;
lead, 251–2;
rice, 114, 245;
straw, 96, 112;
wax, 248;
wood, 112, 164, 249–50
Eggs, 21, 34, 37, 70, 121, 132, 133, 187, 249
Ejjugadu sorcerer, 244
Elephant, 83, 191, 192, 203, 297
—— post for meriah sacrifice, 202–3 Erythrina indica, milk-post, 49
European casts out devils, 181–2
——, spirit propitiated, 178
Evil eye, 109–20, 187, 193
—— tongue, 120
Excommunication, 52, 68, 110
Fasting, 35, 135, 138, 303
Female, unlucky omen, 21 [315]
Ficus hispida, 293
Finger, amputation, 240–1
Fire by friction, 14, 35
——, sacred (hōmam), 51, 185, 186, 212, 213
Fire-walking, offering of hair to deity, 141;
omens, 35;
priest sits on thorns, 145
First-born child, amputation of finger, 240–1;
buried where jackals can devour it, 58;
used in magic, 224–5,
277, 240–1
Fish, sacred, 100–1
Fishermen’s gods, Ganjam, 164–5
Fishes, superstitions, 100–2
Fishing-net and trap to catch spirit, 243
Flowers, omens, 35, 41–2, 47–8, 56
Fœtus extracted for magic, 223–6, 229
Forefinger unlucky, 30
Fortune-teller, initiation, 284;
Irula, 284;
Yerukala, 75
Four-legged objects, objection to carrying, 81
Fowl, 36, 70, 98, 105, 150, 154, 171, 246, 295, 304;
sacrifice, 15, 37, 41,
55, 68, 69, 88, 120, 133, 137, 148, 149, 152, 156, 175, 176, 177, 178, 187, 210, 214, 245, 248, 252, 253, 255, 284, 296, 302, 303
Fox, 191
Frenzy during divination or possession, 142, 144, 145, 147, 254, 255–6, 278, 279, 284–5, 287
Frog, 252, 253, 280,
305, 306;
toad, 100
Gadaba, 82, 175
Gamalla, 53, 135
Ganēsa, Ganapathi, or Vigneswara, 75, 103, 130, 156, 178, 180, 185, 276, 289, 291, 294
Ganga, 118, 141, 148, 214
Gangajātra festival, 148
Ganja (Indian hemp), 250, 270
Gaping, omen, 26
Gavara, 142
Gazelle (chinkāra), 82
Geometric patterns to cure disease, 184–5, 243
Ghī, 78, 86, 124,
132, 133, 147, 185.
See Butter
Gingelly (Sesamum), 46, 50, 76, 127, 192 Givotia rottleriformis, charm, 194
Goat, 105, 154, 176,
202;
sacrifice, 14, 37, 57,
69. 82, 119, 137, 146, 148, 149, 150, 175, 205, 210, 214, 217, 244–5, 255,
267, 282, 284, 295
Go-cart on wheels as vehicle of god, 175
Gourd (Lagenaria) used in sorcery, 227;
to ward off evil eye, 114
Grain, omens, 21, 36, 49,
136;
in fortune-telling, 283;
mixed with meriah ashes, 204;
representing goddess, 61;
to appease evil spirit, 245
—— crop, omens from cattle, 60
Grāma dēvata (village deities), 14, 22, 27, 145, 151, 283;
Amba Bhavani, 281–2;
Ankalamma, 22, 65;
Ankamma, 285;
Chaudēswari, 39;
Chenchu Dēvudu, 286;
Durgamma, 143, 151;
Ellamma, 41, 137;
Gangamma, 38, 144, 156,
219;
Gurumurthi, 254;
Guttalamma, 155;
Huligavva, 41;
Karuppan, 153;
Kodalamma, 36, 304;
Kolapuriamma, 283;
Kolaramma, 103;
Kulanthal Amman, 172–3;
Māgāli, 279;
Māriamma, 37, 144, 146,
148, 151, 176, 214;
Mashani Chendi, 236;
Nukalamma, 15;
Pīda, 175;
Pōleramma, 35, 283, 285;
Saptha Kannimar, 166, 284, 285;
Sattāndi Amman, 103;
Siddēdēvaru, 177;
Yerakamma, 75
Grindstone in rain ceremony, 305
Gudigāra, 48, 164
Guest, arrival, omens, 20, 67
Gul bel (Tinospora cordifolia), 94
Gun fired off to accelerate childbirth, 54
Haddi, 83, 106
Hair, burning, 53, 115;
offered to deity, 137, 138, 140–1;
to snakes, 135;
shaving, 22, 29, 45, 309;
singeing as omen, 35;
use in magic, 220, 248, 250, 253–5;
worn as charm, 193
Hair-balls vomited by cows, 61
——-marks (suli) in horses and cattle, 61–5
Hamstringing of murderer’s corpse, 257
Hand, imprint against evil eye, 119–20
Hanged person, bark of tree as charm, 194
Hanumān, 41, 186, 194, 195, 304
Hare, 24, 85
Holeya, 28, 38, 297, 299
Homicide, 199–236;
as thank-offering for recovery from illness, 208;
for discovering treasure, 215–21;
to appease the earth spirit, 214,
215;
to cure possession by devil, 221;
to ensure good crops, 199–207;
to get rid of concubine, 231;
to get rid of sorcerer, 232–4, 236;
to increase fertility of the soil, 208–9;
to insure cattle against disease, 209;
to propitiate [316]village deities, 214;
to secure fœtus for sorcery, 224–30;
to stay epidemic, 235–6
Hoofs burnt in lying-in chamber, 53
Hook-swinging, omens, 71
Horn burnt during eclipse, 44;
in lying-in chamber, 53
Horoscope, 80, 274, 275
Horse, 29, 62, 64, 82, 166, 186–7
——, images set up in fields, and at Aiyanar shrines, 166–7
House occupation, omen, 44, 59
House-building, omens, 33, 39–40, 70
Human (meriah) sacrifice, 199–206
—— sacrifice, substituted ceremony, 205–7, 212
Husband’s name, pronouncing unlucky, 20
Hyæna, 76, 77, 191
Idaiyan, 15, 47
“Iguana” (Varanus), 16, 71, 100, 132, 220
Image reflected in oil, 45,
55;
cf. 127, 248
Incense, 14, 53, 102, 118, 130, 176, 177, 194, 200, 229, 260, 261, 284, 285, 286
Indra, 149, 310
Infanticide, Toda, 210
Insect in death ceremony, 106
Insects as omens, 72
Iron against evil eye, 117;
at puberty, marriage, death, etc., 69, 256;
chains dedicated to deity, 153–4;
hung on trees, 156;
worn by Saniyāsi, 184;
cure for scorpion sting, 105;
hooks in back, 140;
nails in magic, 148, 222, 247–50, 253–6;
omen, 17;
swinging on, 145;
ordeal, 52, 154;
piercing body, 144
Irula, 178, 234, 284
Ivory beads worn as charm, 193
Jackal, 58, 78, 191;
spurious horns, 189–91
Jagganātha temple, Puri, 142
Jaggery, 78, 133, 147, 287
—— season, religious ceremony, 173–4
Jak (Artocarpus integrifolia), 46, 212, 213, 229, 293
Janappan, 48, 102
Jasmine, 35, 197, 285
Jōgi, 77, 85, 271–2
Jokumara rain-making ceremony, 306, 307
Journey, omens, 23–5
Jupiter, planet, 276
Kādir, 83, 232
Kaikōlan, 144
Kakkalan, 129
Kāli or Durga, festival, 282
Kalla Alagar, 42
Kallan, 42, 133, 169, 244, 286
Kamma, 50, 256
Kammālan, 42, 174
Kaniyan, 213, 273–7, 290
Kāppiliyan, 57, 139
Kāpu, 53, 87–8, 118, 266, 306, 307
Karamadai festival, 147–8
Kāvadi, fish, 138; milk, 137–40
Kēvuto, 82
Khatri, 118
Kodumpāvi, 308, 309
Kōliyan, 117
Konda Dora, 265
Kondh, 21, 56, 66, 76, 83, 86, 87, 111, 199–207, 236, 260, 305
Konga Vellāla, 52
Koraga, 26, 67, 81, 151, 299
Korama, 58
Korava or Yerukala, 14, 21, 30, 34–5, 40, 55, 68, 75, 120, 208, 282, 283
Kota, 234, 279, 301
Koyi, 21, 36, 56, 79, 87, 88, 90, 175, 207, 243, 262, 264, 265, 302, 303
Kudubi, 177
Kudumi (caste), 26, 94
—— (hair knot), 31, 162
Kumbāra, 26
Kunkumam (red powder), 40, 144, 166, 176, 192, 269
Kuruba, 26, 52, 194, 307, 308
Kurumba, 14, 232–4, 277, 299, 300
Kuruvikkāran, 39, 52, 282
Kusavan potter, 166–7
Kuttichāttan, 237–8
Lakshmi or Lutchmi, 61, 195
Lambādi or Brinjāri, 101, 136, 154, 155, 181, 209, 210
Lamp and wick, 18, 32, 39, 50, 97, 106, 116, 117, 118, 121, 130, 136, 143, 149, 178, 184, 209, 212, 229, 243, 244, 251, 261, 268, 270, 278, 290, 294
Leaf garments, 149–52
Leaf-cup, 33, 46, 290
Leather, beating with, 146–7;
burnt in lying-in chamber, 53;
refusal to touch, 81
Leaves, devil ceremony, 246;
omen, 40
Leopard, 76, 78, 280
Leprosy, 97, 98, 108, 310
Lime fruit, 22, 39, 50, 160, 244, 245, 249, 269
Lingadar bottles evil spirits, 250
Lingam, 91, 144–5, 183, 304, 305, 308 [317]
Lingāyat, 135, 144, 239, 256
Lizard, 48–9, 70–1, 98–9, 105, 162, 253
Looking-glass (mirror), 17, 18, 20, 293
Loris, eye used as love charm, 240
Love philtre, 239, 240, 241
Mādiga, 27, 77, 119, 151
Magicians pretend to cure disease, 264–5, 267–8;
to discover treasure, 268;
to drive out devils, 268–70;
to make stone bull eat, 272
Magnesite, legend, 88
Mahseer, 101
Māla, 194, 216, 259
Malaiāli, 48, 146
Malai Vellāla, 83
Malayan, 211, 212, 237, 245
Mammals, superstitions, 73–85
Mandula, 94, 193
Mango, 60, 187, 285, 293
Mannarsala, snake worship, 125–6
Mantram, 37, 92, 93, 133, 135, 163, 166, 180, 181, 182, 186, 187, 213, 225, 227, 242, 244, 247, 248, 250, 258, 261, 267, 269, 270, 276, 277
Mantrasara, 180–1
Māppilla, 87, 111, 128, 129, 187, 188, 193
Maravan, 53, 117
Markandēya, 25
Marks, unlucky, in girls, 52, 180
Marriage of bachelor after death, 51;
of boys and girls to dolls, 159;
of idol to Paraiyan, 297;
omens, 14, 43–4, 47–50, 52,
55, 58, 63, 64;
wave offerings, 117–8
Marriage pots, sacrifice to, 119
Mātangi, 27
Meals, omens, 20, 26
Mēlkote temple, 297
Menstruation, 21, 26, 46,
132, 185–6.
See Puberty
Mercury cups, 196
Meriah sacrifice, 199–207
Metal bowls, blessed at Mecca, 188
Metal votive, and other offerings, 160–4
Milk, 21, 35, 79, 82, 111, 118, 121, 124, 131, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 285, 287, 300, 301, 304
——, human, for scorpion sting, 105
Milk-hedge (Euphorbia Tirucalli), 105, 259
—— post, 49, 50, 256 Mimusops hexandra, milk-post, 49
Minige (Argyreia) in Badaga ceremony, 301
Mohwa or ippa (Bassia), 56, 302
Mondi mendicant, 145
Monkey, 17, 73, 205, 207, 240
Monster, birth, 53;
regarded as a devil, 230
Months, lucky and unlucky, 45, 46
Moon, 17, 22, 43, 55, 104, 105, 190, 191, 220, 229, 239, 299, 302, 306
Moon-shaped amulets, 195
Morning, omen on waking, 19
Mosquito, 82, 105
Mouse, 240
Mouth-lock, 139
Muduvar, 73, 76
Muhammadan, 29, 30, 31, 98, 119, 120, 163, 164, 170, 171, 187, 188, 195, 230, 249, 266, 269, 297
Mungoose, 98
Muni or Munisvara, 177, 209, 258, 295
Munro, Sir Thomas, 34
Murrel (Ophiocephalus), 102
Museum, visit unlucky, 54
Musk in agricultural ceremony, 293
Mustard in evil eye ceremony, 119
Nāgarapanchami, 123, 124, 135
Nail-cuttings burnt against evil eye, 115;
in lying-in chamber, 53
Nalke devil-dancer, 237
Nambiathy priest at snake shrine, 125–6
Names, lucky and unlucky, 20, 34, 55, 56, 133–4, 143
—— of holy persons drunk as charm, 187
Nandi (sacred bull), 154, 304, 308
Nāttukōttai Chetti, 117
Nayādi, curse, 119
Nāyar, 16, 17, 18, 111, 118, 128–9, 138, 161, 193, 256
Nētra mangalya, 167
Nīm or margosa (Melia Azadirachta), 36, 53, 55, 94, 105, 115, 133, 144, 149, 150, 151, 156, 214, 254, 285, 304, 306
Nobili, Dr, and magician, 271–2
Nudity, 37, 104, 151, 224–5, 227, 309
Numbers, lucky and unlucky, 23, 26, 30, 31, 33, 34, 49, 52, 56, 68, 75, 117, 133, 135, 136, 184, 186, 194, 228, 229, 248, 249, 251–2, 253, 299, 309
Oddē, 68, 70, 93, 109, 256
Odi cult, 226–30 Odina
Wodier, abode of devils, 286;
milk-post, 49
Odiyan, 226
Offspring, desire for, 218;
cocoanut broken on head, 146;
diet of monkey flesh, 73;
ear-boring ceremony on doll, 159;
eating cakes, 54;
offerings and vows, 40, 72, 124, 132, 133, 141, 142, 143, 147–8, 150,
151, 155, 158–9,
164, 166, 185;
snake songs, 128 [318]
Oil, ceremonial use, 18,
29, 40, 45, 50, 119, 178, 201, 243, 282, 292;
magic oil, 96, 97, 226–9;
marks on door, 119;
omen, 40;
reflection of image, 45, 55
Oleander (Nerium), used in anointing body, 45
Omens, good and bad, 15–7
Ordeal, charcoal, 286;
fire, 146;
iron, 52, 154;
oil, 146, 197, 264, 282;
rice, 285, 288;
sieve, 288;
snake-bite, 123
Ordure, omen, 59;
pelting with, 303;
thrown into houses, 145
Owl, 65–7
Paliyan, 69, 78, 81, 94
Pallan, 117, 133
Palli, 49–50, 52, 117, 133, 152, 153, 216
Palm-leaf book (graāndha), 18, 225, 253, 275, 293;
charm, 43, 189, 246, 253;
scroll, 172
Palmyra palm, climbing, 84;
fruits to ward off evil eye, 113;
leaf charm, 187;
many-branched tree worshipped, 177–8
Palni shrine, 137–8, 143, 157
Pāampanmekkat (snake guardian), Nambutiri, 126–8
Pāanan, 211, 228, 237
Pāanchagavyam, 79
Panchamritham, 78 Pandanus fascicularis, believed to harbour snake, 96
Pāndavas, 79, 85, 152, 265, 305, 309
Pāndu kuli supposed to contain treasure, 215–6
Paniyan, 68, 83, 231, 260
Pāno, 221
Paraiyan (Pariah) Malayaālam, 83, 225, 227–8, 232, 246, 255
Paraiyan, Tamil, 17, 27, 51, 57, 84, 117, 118, 133, 148, 158, 194, 197, 240, 244, 297, 309
Parasurāama, 122, 150
Parava devil-dancer, 237
Parivaram, 254
Partridge, 88
Pavai (sorcery effigy), 247
Peacock, 36, 41, 88, 200, 201
Pepper in magic ceremony, 253
Periyapālayam, leaf festival, 148–51 Phaseolus Mungo, thrown into ant-hill, 136
Pig, 83;
sacrifice, 56, 65, 165,
189, 201, 211, 284, 305
Pigeon, 70, 176, 228
Pipal (Ficus religiosa), 118, 133, 138, 288
Placenta, burial, 55; tied to tree, 81
Plague, 171, 266–7
Plantain, 65, 78, 117, 121, 131, 147, 160, 185, 202, 212, 251, 252, 293, 294 Plumbago zeylanica, in magic, 228
Pollution and purification, 26–7, 28, 29, 34, 40, 43, 59, 67, 79, 81, 83, 110, 121, 123, 131–2, 159, 179, 200, 297, 298, 301
Pompada devil-dancer, 237
Pongal festival, 35, 133, 202
Porcupine, 85
Portuguese, spirits propitiated, 179
Possession of men by gods, 56, 142, 144, 147, 172, 213, 255, 267, 278, 279, 282, 284, 287, 301, 308
Pot broken at boundary, 37;
to cure disease, 243;
to scare away owls, 66;
offered to cholera god, 176;
to ward off evil eye, 112,
113, 114;
worn as charm, 194
Prayogasara, 181
Pregnancy 44, 53–4, 70, 85, 100, 246
Pregnant corpses exposed in jungle, 74–5
Prehistoric stone celts offered at shrines, 178
Priapi to ward off evil eye, 112, 113, 114
Prophecy, 272–7, 307–8
Puberty, 46, 57–8, 117, 255–6, 284
Pulaya, 17, 27, 255
Pulluvan, 42, 129–32
Pumpkin, 295, 302
Puri, car festival, 142
Quail, 88
Quivering of animals, 14–5, 295;
of human body, 13
Raāgi (Eleusine Coracana), 301
Rags tied to bushes and trees, 155–6;
to scare away owls, 66;
torches, 147
Raāhu, 43
Rain caused by monsters in the air, 310–1
Rāma, legends, 17, 24, 83–4, 87
Rāmānuja, 297
Rāma tanka, 235
Rat-snake (Zamenis), 25, 71, 98
Red sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus), wooden figures carved at Tirupati, 159
Reptiles, omens, 70–1;
superstitions, 89–100
Rice at agricultural ceremonies, 290, 291, 293, 294, 295, 300, 302, 304;
at Badaga festival, 116;
at Koyi festival, 303;
at meriah sacrifice, 201, 202;
at rain-making ceremony, 309;
at Vishu festival, 18, 289;
effigies, 130, 185, 244,
245;
in fortune-telling, 283;
in learning [319]alphabet, 30;
in parturition, 54;
offerings, 15, 68, 73,
125, 133, 134, 135, 147, 150, 156, 175, 221, 243, 287, 299;
omens, 20, 33, 34–5,
36, 37, 65;
ordeal, 146, 285, 288;
pot smeared with, 170;
poured over bullock, 166;
Russell’s viper stuffed with, 98;
thrown on corpse, 264;
tied to marriage cloth, 49
—— balls, 22, 26, 67, 86, 115, 117, 253, 262
——, boiled, 34, 37–8, 39, 284
——, charred, charm, 187
—— ears, food for sparrows, 87
—— flour, 32, 157–8, 212
—— unhusked (paddy), 27, 136, 169
Right and left hand factions, 222
Rings worn as amulets, 95,
191, 192, 193;
as vow, 161
Roller or blue jay, 88, 279–80
Russell’s viper, 98
Sahavāsi, 102
Sakti, 220
Sakuna Pakshi, 104, 279
Sālagrāma stone, 288
Saliva, 27, 98, 248
Salt, 28, 115, 116, 118, 146
Sandal (Santalum), 20, 41, 120, 123, 222, 251, 293
Sandals offered to deity, 157–8, 160
Sand-snake (Eryx), 97–8
Sanyāsi, 159, 219, 269
Sarasvati, 174, 276
Savara, 33, 73, 75, 155, 164, 165, 189, 262
Scorpion, 20, 82, 102–5, 192
Sēdan, 144
Sembadavan, 118
Servile classes, privileges, 27, 296–8 Setaria italica (tenai), 300
Seven, number, 26, 30, 31, 33, 34, 49, 52, 56, 68, 186, 228, 229, 253, 291, 299, 309
Shadow of European thrown on a feast, 109
Shānān, 84, 174, 178, 246
Shark-charmer, 198
Sheep, 14, 22, 52,
191;
sacrifice, 37, 38, 41,
119, 137, 148, 149, 150, 176, 183, 214, 249, 287, 302
Shoe-leather, omen, 57
Shoes in lying-in chamber, 53;
unlucky, 29
Sickle, unlucky for cutting crop, 59
Silence, 38, 287;
vow, 139
Sin, killing insects, 295;
omens, 40, 86
Siva, 24, 65, 71, 86, 101, 115, 162, 163, 184, 279, 297, 305, 307, 308
Skewer through cheeks and tongue, 138, 143, 144, 145
Skull, human, used in sorcery, 228, 241
—— of bull to ward off evil eye, 113
Sleep, omens, 19
Slippers, beating with, 28
Smallpox, 29, 36, 39, 59, 115, 166 175, 212, 235
Smasanākollai festival, 136
Snake, 20, 25, 43, 71, 89–91, 96, 98, 186, 260
——, cremation, 123
—— gods, propitiation by Pulluvans, 129–32
—— grove, 122–3, 126–7, 129, 131
—— mosque at Manarghāt, 129
—— shrine (nāga kovil), 92
—— songs, 128
—— stones, 120, 123–6, 131–3
Snake-bite, 92–6, 193
——-charmers, 92–6, 129
——-wood tree, 91
Snakes, images, 43, 124, 127, 160
—— inhabit white-ant hills, 129, 133–6
Sneezing, omen, 25, 26
Sonaga, 196
Sparrow, 70, 87–8
Spider, 105, 240
Spitting, 26, 27
Square, magic, 32, 36–7, 74, 78, 183, 184, 194, 215, 274, 276
Squirrel, 83–4
Srādh (anniversary ceremony for dead), 67–8, 83
Srāvana Belgola, colossal Jain figure, 135
Srinivāsa fish, 102
Sterility, umbilical cord a cure, 55
Stone, magic (yantram rāyi), 180, 183–5.
Stones piled up as vow, 158;
in honour of deity, 155–7;
throwing into house, 239;
water-worn in shrine, 14
Strangers, unlucky omen, 111 Strychnos Nux-vomica, 248, 251, 290
Sugar, 78, 86, 140,
147, 170, 171, 213.
See Jaggery
Sukra, 308, 309
Sun, 43, 51, 64, 204, 206, 276
—— god, 35
Suttee, 75
Sword balanced on pot, 39;
boundary ceremony, 36;
cutting body, 144, 145, 278;
in worship, 153, 177
Syphilis, 76, 243
Tāli, 46, 47, 48, 51, 143, 153, 158, 166, 195, 297 [320]
Tamarind, 119, 154
Teeth, extraction, 257–60
Telli, 81
Temple car, 53, 114, 144,
222–3, 297;
festival, 142 Terminalia
tomentosa, 36, 304
Tēyyambādi, 128
Thanda Pulayan, 246 Thelyphonus (whip-scorpion), 105
Thorns fixed to door, 296;
lying and sitting on, 145;
stuck into effigies, 120, 251, 252, 254;
to catch earth spirit, 243
Thread, sacred, 194
—— (string), charm, 193;
for tying yantram, 220;
movement as omen, 15, 41;
wound round ant-hill, 135–6
Thulabhāram ceremony, 171–2
Thunder, 19
Tiger, 14, 57, 74–6, 189, 260, 261, 262, 280
Tīpu Sultan, 44–5, 101, 188
Tirupati (Tirumala), 55, 137, 141, 143, 148, 156–9, 161, 168–9
Tiyan, 46, 82, 128, 162–3, 246
Toad, 100
Tobacco, 20, 27, 178, 208, 250, 259
Toda, 141, 210, 233, 234, 279
Toddy, 186, 187, 200, 251, 252, 253, 262, 263, 287, 295, 299, 302
Torch, against evil eye, 115;
beating body, 146;
in death ceremony, 244;
rain ceremony, 309;
snake ceremony, 131;
rag torch tied to tree, 156
Tortoise, 71, 192
Tottiyan, 14, 28, 94, 260
Treading on charm, 185,
243, 247, 252, 307;
on name cut on road, 159;
water poured on footsteps, 51.
See Earth
Treasure, beliefs, 85, 90–1, 102, 221;
human sacrifice, 215–21
Tree of testimony as charm, 188
Tree-snake, Dendrophis, 96;
Dryophis, 96, 97
Trisula (Siva’s trident), 183–4
Tūd (Meliosma pungens) in Badaga ceremony, 300
Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), 53, 291
Turban, omen, 41
Turmeric, 36, 40, 77, 114, 117, 125, 130, 166, 170, 171, 175, 176, 177, 185, 190, 194, 199, 202, 206, 212, 227, 243, 246, 269, 278, 283, 284, 292, 293, 295
Twins, 54
Umbilical cord, 25, 54–5, 105
Umbrella, unlucky, 29, 63;
silver, offering, 160
Uncle, 55;
maternal, 54, 55, 70;
paternal, 55
Urāli, 48, 68
Urine of animals as omen, 15,
21, 58;
of enemy in magic, 187, 248;
of cattle, 58, 59, 79,
97;
of monkey, 73;
of monsters, 310–1;
of wild dogs, 79
Vada, 40–1
Valaiyan, 56, 133, 244, 286
Valluvan magician, 268
Valmīki, 135
Varuna, 122, 305
Varuna japam, prayer to the rain god, 308–10
Velama, 216
Velichchapād, 277–8
Vellālan, 133
Venus, planet, 44
Vettiyan grave-digger, 309
Vettuvan, 151 Vigna Catiang seeds as omens, 39
Vīramushti, 94, 144
Virgin and Child, picture works miracles, 161
——, catamenial blood in magic, 240;
corpse in sorcery, 242;
vows, 158
Vishnupād (feet of Vishnu), 193
Vishu festival, 17–9, 289
Vontigadu ceremony, 50–1
Vulture, sacred, 86
Washing of feet, ceremonial, 22, 31
Water, charm, 189;
drunk as charm, 187;
holy, 14, 123, 220;
poured over idol as vow, 147;
cf. 142
Water-snake, 96, 98
Wave offering, 114, 115, 117–9, 135, 171, 245
White-ant. See Ant
Whooping-cough caused by Bhairava, the dog-god, 196
Widow, 21, 30, 46, 51, 52
Winnowing basket, 292, 293;
fan, 26, 283, 306;
sieve, 20, 80, 117, 287;
tray, 68, 283
Wolf, 77
Woodpecker, 85
Wool of black sheep, charm, 191
Words, lucky and unlucky, 29, 30, 31
Yaānaādi, 82, 95, 285
Yantram, 182, 185–7, 196–7, 219, 227
Yantrasara, 181
Yerukala. See Korava
Yetah fish (Bagarius), used in magic, 253
Yōgi, 104
Printed at The Edinburgh Press, 9 and 11 Young Street.
Colophon
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| Page | Source | Correction |
|---|---|---|
| N.A. | Oastes | Castes |
| 52 | ‘ | “ |
| 61 | Lakshi | Lakshmi |
| 69 | fews | few |
| 69, 248 | [Not in source] | , |
| 69 | sacrified | sacrificed |
| 70 | cointing | counting |
| 112, 143 | [Not in source] | ” |
| 124, 125 | ghee | ghī |
| 128 | Nambutri’s | Nambūdri’s |
| 133 | instal | install |
| 139 | Gazetter | Gazetteer |
| 140 | diety | deity |
| 141 | propitate | propitiate |
| 172, 264 | , | . |
| 187 | women | woman |
| 226 | kicks | kick |
| 239 | dhatura | datura |
| 242 | [Not in source] | . |
| 248 | similiar | similar |
| 294 | Gundest | Gundert |
| 296 | Uchāra | Uchāral |
| 314 | . | , |
| 320 | sarced | sacred |