<p><span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</SPAN></span></p>
<h2>LESSON IV</h2>
<h3>THE JEWISH BACKGROUND OF CHRISTIANITY</h3>
<h4>I. PALESTINIAN JUDAISM</h4>
<h4>1. SOURCES</h4>
<p>The New Testament is one of the chief sources of information
about the Palestinian Judaism of the first century. Other important
sources are the works of Josephus, a first-century Jewish
historian, and the Mishna. The Mishna is a collection of Jewish
interpretations of the Mosaic law. In its written form it is thought
to have been produced at the end of the second century, but it
contains a mass of earlier material which had been preserved by
oral tradition.</p>
<h4>2. OUTLINE OF JEWISH HISTORY</h4>
<p>After the conclusion of the Old Testament period the Jewish
nation had undergone important changes. If, therefore, the
Judaism of the first century is to be understood, the student must
have in mind at least a bare outline of the history between the
Testaments.</p>
<p>Old Testament history closes with the rebuilding of the walls
of Jerusalem and the reorganization of the national life which took
place under Ezra and Nehemiah in the fifth century before
Christ. At that time Judah, or "Judea," was the only part of
Palestine which was occupied by the Jews, and they occupied it
only as vassals—though with independence in internal affairs—of
the kings of Persia.</p>
<p>The Persian dominion continued for over a century. Then,
in the latter part of the fourth century before Christ, Judea was
conquered by Alexander the Great. For some hundred years after
the death of Alexander, the country was a bone of contention
between the kings of Egypt and the kings of Syria—that is, between
the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. At the beginning of the second
century before Christ the king of Syria won a permanent victory.</p>
<p>Under the Ptolemies and at first under the Seleucids, as well as
under the Persians, the Jews enjoyed a considerable measure of
independence in the management of their own affairs. Their religion,<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</SPAN></span>
in particular, was left quite unmolested. But the assimilation
which was not being accomplished by force was being accomplished
by peaceful influences. The all-pervasive Greek culture
of the period was making itself felt in Palestine as well as elsewhere.
Judea seemed to be in danger of being Hellenized.</p>
<p>Under the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria (175-164 B. C.),
however, the policy of toleration was suddenly interrupted. Antiochus
tried to stamp out the Jewish religion by force. The result
was a heroic uprising led by Mattathias and his sons, who are called
the Maccabees. The tyranny of Antiochus had caused a mighty
popular reaction against the Hellenizing party among the Jews.
Devotion to the religion of Israel with exclusion of foreign influences
was ever afterwards the dominant tendency in Jewish history.</p>
<p>The Maccabees were at first wonderfully successful against overwhelming
odds; and when the opposing forces seemed at last to
have become too powerful, internal conflicts at the Syrian court
gave the Jewish patriots that independence which they could
probably not otherwise have maintained. Rulers belonging to the
Maccabean dynasty governed the Jewish nation for about a
hundred years, during most of which period they were independent.
Their territory at first embraced only Judea, but was gradually
enlarged over the other parts of Palestine. Galilee, which—since
the destruction of the northern Israelitish kingdom centuries before—had
become predominantly Gentile, was Judaized under
Aristobulus I in 104-103 B. C. Before the time of Christ it had
become thoroughly Jewish.</p>
<p>Unfortunately the worldly power of the Maccabees had brought
worldliness of spirit. The first revolt had been undertaken from
a lofty religious motive, in order to maintain the worship of Jehovah.
As the years went on, the Maccabean rulers became increasingly
engrossed in the extension of political power. Allying themselves
with the aristocratic party among the Jews, they came to favor
the extension of those Greek influences—though not in the sphere
of religion—which at first they had opposed. Under Queen Alexandra
(76-67 B. C.) it is true, there was a reaction. The strictly
Jewish, anti-Hellenistic party again became dominant. But under
Alexandra's successors there was civil strife, and the all-conquering
Romans found the country an easy prey. Pompey took possession
of Jerusalem in 63 B. C.</p>
<p>The years that followed saw the gradual rise of the family of
Herod the Great, who, as vassal of the Romans, became king of all<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</SPAN></span>
Palestine in 37 B. C. and ruled until 4 B. C. Herod was an
Idumæan, not a genuine Jew. Idumæa, however, the country
to the south of Judah, had been Judaized some time before. Herod
was at heart a Hellenist. He built Greek theaters and amphitheaters
not only in the numerous Greek cities in or near Palestine,
but also in Jerusalem itself. Nevertheless he was wise enough to
support the Jewish religion and generally to respect the customs of
the people. His magnificent rebuilding of the temple was probably
intended chiefly to win popular favor.</p>
<p>At Herod's death, his territory was divided among his sons.
Archelaus was given Judea, Antipas—the "Herod" of Jesus'
public ministry—received Galilee and Perea, with the title of "Tetrarch,"
and Philip received certain territories to the east of Galilee.
Archelaus was banished in A. D. 6, Antipas was banished in A. D.
39, and Philip died in A. D. 33. After the banishment of Archelaus,
Judea was administered by Roman procurators till A. D. 41, when
all Palestine was given to Herod Agrippa I. Acts 12:1-4,18-23.
After A. D. 44, procurators were again in control.</p>
<p>The misgovernment of the procurators led to the great revolt
in A. D. 66. After four years of war, Jerusalem was taken by the
Roman army in A. D. 70. The temple was destroyed, and the
offering of sacrifices ceased. The destruction of the temple marks
an epoch in Jewish history. Henceforth the national center was
gone.</p>
<p>There was another uprising in A. D. 132-135, but that was the
last. A Gentile city was erected on the ruins of Jerusalem, and
for a considerable time at least the Jews were forbidden even to
enter its precincts.</p>
<h4>3. ADMINISTRATION AND PARTIES</h4>
<p>After the return from the Exile, the priests occupied a position
of leadership. The high priest, whose office was hereditary, was
practically head of the Jewish state. With him was associated a
council, composed of members of the priestly aristocracy. This
state of affairs prevailed during the Persian and Greek periods.
Under the Maccabees the power of the high priest reached its
highest point. For after a time the Maccabean rulers themselves
assumed the title of high priest, and still later the title of king.
The high priest, then, under the Maccabees, was also king. Under
Herod the Great, on the contrary, the high priesthood sank to its
lowest ebb. Herod made and unmade high priests at pleasure.</p>
<p><span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</SPAN></span></p>
<p>The council associated with the high priest was, under Alexandra,
opened to the members of the strict anti-Hellenistic party. At the
time of Christ it included both Pharisees and Sadducees.</p>
<p>These parties became distinct at the time of the Maccabees.
The Sadducees—the origin of the name is not altogether clear—were
the aristocratic party, hospitable to Greek culture. The
Pharisees were the strict Jewish party, devoted to the law, and
opposed to foreign influences. The name "Pharisee" means
"separated." The Pharisees were "separated" from the mass
of the people by a stricter observance of the Mosaic law. At first
the Pharisees supported the Maccabean leaders; for the Maccabean
revolt was in the interests of the Jewish religion. But when the
Maccabees became engrossed in worldly politics and susceptible
to Greek influences the Pharisees opposed them. At the time of
Christ the essential characteristics of the parties remained unchanged.</p>
<h4>4. LANGUAGE</h4>
<p>Some centuries before Christ, Hebrew had ceased to be the
ordinary language of Palestine. As the language of the Old
Testament it continued to be studied. Old Testament passages
in Hebrew were read in the synagogue. Hebrew was used also to
some extent as the language of learned discussion. But for all
ordinary purposes its place had been taken by Aramaic, a language
of the Semitic family closely related to Hebrew. At the time of
Christ Aramaic was the spoken language of the Palestinian Jews.
Even in the synagogues, the Old Testament passages, after having
been read in Hebrew, were translated orally into the language which
the people could understand.</p>
<p>But, since the time of Alexander the Great, another language had
made its way into Palestine along with Aramaic. This was
the Greek. The kingdoms into which Alexander's empire was
divided were Greek kingdoms. Two of them, Syria and Egypt,
bore rule alternately over Palestine. With the Greek government
came Greek culture and the Greek language. Then, under Antiochus
Epiphanes, there was a mighty reaction. Thereafter religion,
at least, was kept altogether free from Greek influences.</p>
<p>In other spheres, however, under the Maccabean kings and
still more under the Romans, Greek culture effected an entrance.
At the time of Christ there were typical Greek cities not only to
the east of the Jordan in Decapolis, where magnificent ruins even
to-day attest the ancient Greco-Roman civilization, and not only<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</SPAN></span>
along the coast of the Mediterranean, but even within the confines
of Palestine proper. With some truth Palestine in the first century
may be called a bilingual country. Greek and Aramaic were both
in use.</p>
<p>Aramaic was the language of the mass of the people. Many,
no doubt, could speak no other language. But if a man desired
to make his way in the world in any public capacity or in trade he
would be obliged to learn the cosmopolitan language of the time.
No doubt very many could speak both languages.</p>
<p>Jesus and his apostles belonged to those circles which were
least affected by the encroachments of Greek civilization. The
whole atmosphere of the Gospels is as un-Greek as could be imagined.
As is proved by the presence of Aramaic words even in our Greek
Gospels, Aramaic was undoubtedly the language in which the gospel
was originally proclaimed. Aramaic was the language of Jesus'
boyhood home, and Aramaic was the language of his intercourse
with the disciples and of his public preaching.</p>
<p>It is perfectly possible, however, that even Jesus may have used
Greek upon rare occasions, for example in conversation with Pilate,
the Roman procurator. His disciples, after the resurrection, found
themselves at the head of a Greek-speaking community. The early
Church in Jerusalem was composed not only of "Hebrews," but
also of "Grecians," or Hellenists. Acts 6:1. The Hellenists
were Greek-speaking Jews of the dispersion who were sojourning
more or less permanently in the holy city. The apostles seem to
have entered upon their new functions without difficulty. Some
knowledge of Greek, no doubt, all of them brought with them
from their Galilean homes, and their knowledge would be increased
through practice. It is not surprising then that several of the
original apostles and two of the brothers of Jesus were the authors
of Greek books of the New Testament.</p>
<hr class="tb" />
<p><span class="smcap">In the Library.</span>—Riggs, "A History of the Jewish People," especially
pp. 105-116, 143-153, 215-231. Davis, "Dictionary of the
Bible": articles on "Council," "Pharisees," "Sadducees," "Synagogue,"
"School," "Scribe," "Aramaic," and "Hebrew." The outline of Jewish
history and institutions which is provided in the lesson helps for
this lesson and the following is dependent especially upon the large
German work of Schürer.</p>
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