Chemistry, Properties and Tests of Precious Stones

<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> <h3>IMITATIONS, AND SOME OF THE TESTS, OF PRECIOUS STONES.</h3> <p>We now arrive at the point where it is necessary to discuss the manufacture and re-formation of precious stones, and also to consider a few of the tests which may be applied to <i>all</i> stones. These are given here in order to save needless repetition; the tests which are specially applicable to individual stones will more properly be found under the description of the stone referred to, so that the present chapter will be devoted chiefly to generalities.</p> <p>With regard to diamonds, the manufacture of these has not as yet been very successful. As will be seen on reference to Chapter II., on "the Origin of Precious Stones," it is generally admitted that these beautiful and valuable minerals are caused by chemically-charged water and occasionally, though not always, high temperature, but invariably beautified and brought to the condition in which they are obtained by the action of weight and pressure, extending unbroken through perhaps ages of time.</p> <p>In these circumstances, science, though able to give<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</SPAN></span> chemical properties and pressure, cannot, of course, maintain these continuously for "ages," therefore the chemist must manufacture the jewels in such manner that he may soon see the results of his labours, and though real diamonds may be made, and with comparative ease, from boron in the amorphous or pure state along with aluminium, fused in a crucible at a high temperature, these diamonds are but microscopic, nor can a number of them be fused, or in any other way converted into a large single stone, so that imitation stones, to be of any service must be made of a good clear glass. The glass for this purpose is usually composed of 53.70 per cent. of red lead, 38.48 per cent. of pure quartz in fine powder, preferably water-ground, and 7.82 per cent. of carbonate of potash, the whole coloured when necessary with metallic oxides of a similar nature to the constituents of the natural stones imitated. But for colourless diamonds, the glass requires no such addition to tint it. From the formula given is made the material known as "strass," or "paste," and stones made of it are mostly exhibited under and amongst brilliant artificial lights. The mere fact that they are sold cheaply is <i>prim&acirc; facie</i> proof that the stones are glass, for it is evident that a diamond, the commercial value of which might be &pound;50 or more, cannot be purchased for a few shillings and be genuine. So long as this is understood and the stone is sold for the few shillings, no harm is done; but to offer it as a genuine stone and at the price of a genuine stone, would amount to fraud, and be punishable accordingly. Some of these "paste," or "white stones," as they are called in the trade, are cut and polished exactly like a diamond, and<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</SPAN></span> with such success as occasionally to deceive all but experts. Such imitations are costly, though, of course, not approaching the value of the real stones; it being no uncommon thing for valuable jewels to be duplicated in paste, whilst the originals are kept in the strong room of a bank or safe-deposit.</p> <p>In all cases, however, a hard file will abrade the surface of the false stone. In chapter VII. we found that quartz is in the seventh degree of hardness, and an ordinary file is but a shade harder than this, so that almost all stones higher than No. 7 are unaffected by a file unless it is used roughly, so as to break a sharp edge. In order to prepare artificial diamonds and other stones for the file and various tests, they are often what is called "converted" into "doublets" or "triplets." These are made as follows: the body of the glass is of paste, and on the "table" (see last chapter), and perhaps on the broader facets, there will be placed a very thin slab of the real stone, attached by cement. In the case of the diamond, the body is clear, but in the coloured imitations the paste portion is made somewhat lighter in shade than the real stone would be, the portion below the girdle being coloured chemically, or mounted in a coloured backing. Such a stone will, of course, stand most tests, for the parts usually tested are genuine.</p> <p>A stone of this nature is called a "doublet," and it is evident that when it is tested on the underside, it will prove too soft, therefore the "triplet" has been introduced. This is exactly on the lines of the doublet, except that the collet and perhaps the pavilions are covered also, so that the girdle, which is generally encased<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</SPAN></span> by the mounting, is the only surface-portion of paste. In other cases the whole of the crown is genuine, whilst often both the upper and lower portions are solid and genuine, the saving being effected by using a paste centre at the girdle, covered by the mounting. Such a stone as this last mentioned is often difficult to detect without using severe tests and desperate means, e.g.:&mdash;(<i>a</i>) by its crystalline structure (see Chapter III.); (<i>b</i>) by the cleavage planes (see Chapter IV.); (<i>c</i>) by the polariscope (see Chapter V.); (<i>d</i>) by the dichroscope (see Chapter VI.); (<i>e</i>) by specific gravity (see Chapter VIII.); (<i>f</i>) cutting off the mounting, and examining the girdle; (<i>g</i>) soaking the stone for a minute or so in a mixture said to have been originally discovered by M. D. Rothschild, and composed of hydrofluoric acid and ammonia; this will not answer for all stones, but is safe to use for the diamond and a few others. Should the jewel be glass, it will be etched, if not completely destroyed, but if genuine, no change will be apparent; (<i>h</i>) soaking the diamond for a few minutes in warm or cold water, in alcohol, in chloroform, or in all these in turn, when, if a doublet, or triplet, it will tumble to pieces where joined together by the cement, which will have been dissolved. It is, however, seldom necessary to test so far, for an examination under the microscope, even with low power, is usually sufficient to detect in the glass the air-bubbles which are almost inseparable from glass-mixtures, though they do not detract from the physical properties of the glass. The higher powers of the same instrument will almost always define the junction and the layer or layers of cement, no matter<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</SPAN></span> how delicate a film may have been used. Any one of these tests is sufficient to isolate a false stone.</p> <p>Some of the softer genuine stones may be fused together with splinters, dust, and cuttings of the same stones, and of this product is formed a larger stone, which, though manufactured, is essentially perfectly real, possessing exactly the same properties as a naturally formed stone. Many such stones are obtained as large as an ordinary pin's head, and are much used commercially for cluster-work in rings, brooches, for watch-jewels, scarf-pins, and the like, and are capable of being cut and polished exactly like an original stone. This is a means of using up to great advantage the lapidary's dust, and though these products are real stones, perhaps a little more enriched in colour chemically, they are much cheaper than a natural stone of the same size and weight.</p> <p>Some spurious stones have their colour improved by heat, by being tinged on the outside, by being tinted throughout with a fixed colour and placed in a clear setting; others, again, have a setting of a different hue, so that the reflection of this shall give additional colour and fire to the stone. For instance, glass diamonds are often set with the whole of the portion below the girdle hidden, this part of the stone being silvered like a mirror. Others are set open, being held at the girdle only, the portion covered by the setting being silvered. Other glass imitations, such as the opal, have a tolerably good representation of the "fiery" opal given to them by the admixture, in the glass, of a little oxide of tin, which makes it somewhat opalescent, and in the setting is<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</SPAN></span> placed a backing of red, gold, copper, or fiery-coloured tinsel, whilst the glass itself, at the back, is painted very thinly with a paint composed of well washed and dried fish-scales, reduced to an impalpable powder, mixed with a little pure, refined mastic, or other colourless varnish. This gives a good imitation of phosphorescence, as well as a slight pearliness, whilst the tinsel, seen through the paint and the curious milkiness of the glass, gives good "fire."</p> <p>A knowledge of the colours natural to precious stones and to jewels generally is of great service in their rough classification for testing, even though some stones are found in a variety of colours. An alphabetical list of the most useful is here appended, together with their average specific gravities and hardness. (See also Chapter VII. on "Hardness," and Chapter VIII. on "Specific Gravity.")</p> <h4><span class="smcap">White or Colourless Stones</span>.</h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Beryl</td><td align='left'>7-3/4</td><td align='left'>2.709-2.81</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Corundum</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>3.90-4.16</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Jade</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>3.300-3.381</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Opal</td><td align='left'>5-1/2-6-1/2</td><td align='left'>2.160-2.283</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Phenakite</td><td align='left'>7-3/4</td><td align='left'>2.965</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Quartz</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.670</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Rock-crystal</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.521-2.795</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Sapphire</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>4.049-4.060</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Spinel</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.614-3.654</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Topaz</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.500-3.520</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.029</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Zircon</td><td align='left'>7-1/2</td><td align='left'>4.700-4.880</td></tr> </table></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</SPAN></span></p> <h4><span class="smcap">Yellow Stones</span>.</h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Amber</td><td align='left'>2-1/2</td><td align='left'>1.000</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Beryl</td><td align='left'>7-3/4</td><td align='left'>2.709-2.810</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Chrysoberyl</td><td align='left'>8-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.689-3.752</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Chrysolite</td><td align='left'>6-7</td><td align='left'>3.316-3.528</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Corundum (the yellow variety<br/> known as "Oriental Topaz" [not "Topaz"], see below)</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>3.90-4.16</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Garnets (various)</td><td align='left'>6-1/2-7-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.4-4.5</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Hyacinth (a form of Zircon)</td><td align='left'>7-1/2</td><td align='left'>4.7-4.88</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Quartz (Citrine)</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.658</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Sapphire</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>4.049-4.060</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Spinel</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.614-3.654</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Topaz (for "Oriental Topaz," see above)</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.500-3.520</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.210</td></tr> </table></div> <h4><span class="smcap">Brown and Flame-Coloured Stones</span>.</h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Andalusite</td><td align='left'>7-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.204</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Garnets (various)</td><td align='left'>6-1/2-7-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.40-4.50</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Hyacinth (a form of Zircon), see below</td><td align='left'>7-1/2</td><td align='left'>4.70-4.88</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Quartz (smoke coloured)</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.670</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.100</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Zircon (Hyacinth)</td><td align='left'>7-1/2</td><td align='left'>4.70-4.88</td></tr> </table></div> <h4><span class="smcap">Red and Rose-Coloured Stones</span>.</h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Carnelian (a variety of Chalcedony)</td><td align='left'>6-1/2</td><td align='left'>2.598-2.610</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Deep Red Garnet</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.40-4.50</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Jasper</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.668</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Opal (the "Fire Opal")</td><td align='left'>5-1/2-6-1/2</td><td align='left'>2.21</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(average)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Ruby</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>4.073-4.080</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Rhodonite</td><td align='left'>5-1/2-6-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.413-3.617</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Sapphire</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>4.049-4.060</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Spinel Ruby</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.614-3.654</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Topaz</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.500-3.520</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.024</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Zircon</td><td align='left'>7-1/2</td><td align='left'>4.70-4.88</td></tr> </table></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</SPAN></span></p> <h4><span class="smcap">Pink Stones</span>.</h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Beryl</td><td align='left'>7-3/4</td><td align='left'>2.709-2.810</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Ruby</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>4.073-4.080</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Spinel</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.614-3.654</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Topaz ("burnt" or "pinked"),<br/> see Chapter XIV., page 92</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.500-3.520</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.024</td></tr> </table></div> <h4><span class="smcap">Blue Stones</span>.</h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Beryl</td><td align='left'>7-3/4</td><td align='left'>2.709-2.810</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Dichorite (Water Sapphire)</td><td align='left'>7-7-1/2</td><td align='left'>4.049-4.060</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Disthene (Kyanite)</td><td align='left'>5-7</td><td align='left'>3.609-3.688</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Iolite (Cordierite)</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>2.641</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Lapis lazuli</td><td align='left'>5-1/2</td><td align='left'>2.461</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Sapphire</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>4.049-4.060</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Topaz</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.500-3.520</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.160</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Turquoise</td><td align='left'>6</td><td align='left'>2.800</td></tr> </table></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</SPAN></span></p> <h4><span class="smcap">Green Stones.</span></h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Aquamarine</td><td align='left'>7-3/4</td><td align='left'>2.701-2.800</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Chrysoberyl</td><td align='left'>8-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.689-3.752</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Chrysolite</td><td align='left'>6-7</td><td align='left'>3.316-3.528</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Chrysoprase (Quartz)</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.670</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Dioptase</td><td align='left'>5</td><td align='left'>3.289</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Emerald and Oriental Emerald</td><td align='left'>7-3/4</td><td align='left'>2.690</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Euclase</td><td align='left'>7-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.090</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Garnet (see also Red Garnet)</td><td align='left'>6-1/2-7-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.400-4.500</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Heliotrope (Chalcedony)</td><td align='left'>6-1/2</td><td align='left'>2.598-2.610</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Hiddenite (a variety of Spodumene)</td><td align='left'>6-1/2-7</td><td align='left'>3.130-3.200</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Jade</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>3.300-3.381</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Jadeite</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>3.299</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Malachite</td><td align='left'>3-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.710-3.996</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Peridot (a variety of Chrysolite)</td><td align='left'>6-7</td><td align='left'>3.316-3.528</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Plasma (a variety of Chalcedony)</td><td align='left'>6-1/2</td><td align='left'>2.598-2.610</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Quartz</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.670</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Sapphire</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>4.049-4.060</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Topaz</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.500-3.520</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.148</td></tr> </table></div> <h4><span class="smcap">Violet Stones.</span></h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Amethyst</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.661</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Quartz (Amethyst)</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.670</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Sapphire</td><td align='left'>9</td><td align='left'>4.049-4.060</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Spinel</td><td align='left'>8</td><td align='left'>3.614-3.654</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.160</td></tr> </table></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</SPAN></span></p> <h4><span class="smcap">Chatoyant Stones.</span></h4> <p>These stones are easily recognisable by their play of colour. (See Chapter XIV.)</p> <h4><span class="smcap">Black Stones.</span></h4> <div class='center'> <table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'><i>Hardness.</i></td><td align='left'><i>Specific Gravity.</i></td></tr> <tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VII.)</td><td align='left'>(See Chapter VIII.)</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Diamond</td><td align='left'>10</td><td align='left'>3.502-3.564</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Garnet</td><td align='left'>6-1/2-7-1/2</td><td align='left'>3.400-4.500</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Jet</td><td align='left'>3-1/2</td><td align='left'>1.348</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Onyx (a variety<br/> of Chalcedony)</td><td align='left'>6-1/2</td><td align='left'>2.598-2.610</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Quartz</td><td align='left'>7</td><td align='left'>2.670</td></tr> <tr><td align='left'>Tourmaline (not unlike<br/> Black Resin in appearance)</td><td align='left'>7-1/4</td><td align='left'>3.024-3.300</td></tr> </table></div> <hr style="width: 65%;" /> <p><span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</SPAN></span></p> <div style="break-after:column;"></div><br />